
Class — 



Book 



^_- 



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GEAMMAE OF THE FEENCH LANGUAGE. 



PART I. 

FOE BEGINNERS. 



GRAMMAR 



FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



M. SCHELE PE VEKE, LL.D. 
» i 

OF THE TTNT/ErSr: I' OF VIRGINIA. 



NEW YORK: 

UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

4 BOND STREET, 

1870. 









Rutered Mending to Act of Confjre", in tin- jmr 1*17, 
Bt ruhardscn * COMPANY, 

t;ierk'« Office of the l>i«tn- 1 Oonrl "l tin- lintel Sinlen for Hid 
Southern District of New York. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 

PAGH 

I. — Pronunciation. 9 

The Alphabet 9 

Vowels 10 

Sounds of the Vowels 10 

Accents Re 10 

Form of Accents 10 

Purposes of Accents 11 

Effect of Accents 11 

Nasal Sounds 12 

Diphthongs 14 

Compound Sounds 14 

Three Vowels 16 

Four Vowels 17 

T 17 

Consonants 18 

Final Consonants 18 

Sounds of the Consonants 18 

Pronunciation in Beading and Speaking 29 

Changes of Sounds 29 

II.— Elision 32 

III.— Syllabication 34 

IV. — Quantity 35 

Words with double meaning 36 

V.— Punctuation 37 

VI. — List op Abbreviations 38 



4 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. 
ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

NOTJX8. 

PAOB 

Ditinon of Nouns 39 

Proper Names 39 

Common Nouns .... 39 

Collective Nouns 40 

Gender of Nouns 40 

Determined by Signification 40 

Determined by Termination 42 

List of Masculine Nouns in mute e 43 

HJfimber <>f Nouns 52 

Rules on Formation of the Plural 52 

Irregular Plurals 5;$ 

toe 54 

CHAPTER II. 

ARTICLES. 

Tii. Tkm Artirl,* 54 

1. Definite Article 54 

Declension of Definite Article 58 

•„>. Indefinite Article 50 

Di olension of Indefinite Article 56 

Exercise H 

Declension of Proper Names 57 

Pot 57 

Exercise 57 

1. Partitive Article 58 

Exercise N 

Changes of Partitive Article 59 

Exercise 59 

CHAPTER III. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives agree with their Nouns 60 

Participles 60 

Formation of the Feminine 60 

Exercise 62 



CONTENTS. 5 

PAOB 

Adjectives in eur 62 

Irregular Feminities 63 

Double forms for Masculine 63 

Exercise 64 

Formation of the Plural 64 

Exercise 64 

Formation of the Comparative Degrees 65 

Comparative of Superiority 65 

" Inferiority 65 

" Equality 65 

Irregular Comparative forms, 66 

Exercise 66 

Relative Superlative 66 

Absolute " 67 

Exercise 67 

Place of Adjectives 67 

Exercise 68 

Numeral Adjectives 69 

Cardinal Numbers 69 

Rules on use of Cardinal Numbers 70 

Exercise 71 

Ordinal Numbers , 72 

Rules on the use of Ordinal Numbers 73 

Exercise 73 



CHAPTER IY. 

PRONOUNS. 

i of Pronouns 74 

Personal Pronouns. . . 74 

Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 74 

Relation to Verbs 75 

Rules of ascertaining it 76 

Elision of Pronouns 77 

Place of Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 78 

Exercise 78 

Absolute Personal Pronouns 79 

Exercise 80 

Possessive Pronouns 80 



6 CONTENTS. 

PAGX 

Conjunctive Possessive Pronouns 80 

Agreement with Noun 81 

Declension 81 

Exercise 82 

Absolute Possessive Pronouns 82 

Exercise 83 

Demonstrative Pronouns 83 

Conjunctive Demonstrative Pronouns 83 

Agreement with Noun 84 

Exercise 84 

Absolute Demonstrative Pronouns 84 

Exercise 85 

Relative Pronouns 85 

86 

87 

Exenaae 87 

Interrogative Pronoun 88 

Prepositions belonging t<> them 88 

Exercise 89 

Lnite Pmnouns 89 

On 89 

How-: 89 

Exercise 90 

CII A I'TKIl V. 

VERBS. 

P nr pOBW Of HM Verb 90 

Auxiliary V.rl's HI 

to have '.i I 

M 

.1 •. negatively M 

A . Interrogatively 98 

Interrogatively and negatively 100 

} 102 

} />, negatively 103 

)" ratively 100 

v.-iv and negatively 106 

Bxerdae 106 

rcise 107 



CONTENTS. 7 

FACIE 

Eire, to be 10? 

Eire, negatively 110 

Etre, interrogatively 114 

Etre, interrogatively and negatively 116 

Exercise 118 

Exercise 118 

Exercise 119 

Eules on use of Verbs 119 

Four Conjugations 120 

Formation of Tenses and Persons, tbat are uniform 120 

Modes of Verbs 121 

Tenses of Verbs 122 

Simple Tenses 122 

Compound Tenses 123 

Table of Terminations of Verbs 124 

First Conjugation, parler 128 

Remarks on Verbs of First Conjugation 139 

Second Conjugation, finir 144 

Third Conjugation, recevoir 156 

Remarks on the Verbs of Third Conjugation 167 

Fourth Conjugation, vendre 169 

Different kinds of Verbs 180 

Active Verbs 180 

Neuter Verbs 180 

List of Neuter Verbs, conjugated with etre 181 

Passive Verbs 182 

Pronominal Verbs 183 

Reflexive 183 

Reciprocal 183 

Pronominal Proper 184 

Impersonal Verbs 184 

Reflexive Verb se lever 184 

SenaUer 196 

Irregular Verbs 203 

Of First Conjugation 204 

Of Second Conjugation 205 

Of Third Conjugation 220 

OfFourth Conjugation 230 

Exercises on Verbs, [13] 258 



CONTENTS. 



FAOB 

Participles 264 

Use of Participles 264 

Exercise 205 



CHAPTER VI. 

ADVERBS. 

Formation of Adverbs 266 

Simple Adverbs 266 

Derivative Adverbs 266 

Exercise 266 

Compound Adverbs 2C.7 

Adverbs of Quantity 867 

Exercise 207 

ive Adverbs 207 

Exercise 207 

Comparativ. Adverbs 268 

Exercise 208 

CUAPTER VII. 

rKi.i-.'-nioNS. 

Farm of Prepositions 260 

Simple Prepositions 260 

Compound Prepositions S68 

!>■ . d, and par 868 

: Prepositions 270 

- 270 



CII A PT SB VIII. 
. rumrnoRS. 

Use of Conjunctions 271 

Exercise 272 



CHAPTER IX. 

i i i UK IP ins. 
Dm <>f Interjections 272 



FRENCH GRAMMAR 



ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 



I.— PRONUNCIATION. 

The pronunciation of a foreign language cannot be satisfac- 
torily learned by comparing it witb that of our own. Such 
comparisons lead invariably to incorrectness. The teacher 
ought, therefore, in all cases to begin by pronouncing himself, 
clearly and distinctly, the sound of each letter and combination 
of letters, and then make his pupils repeat them one by one. 
The latter cannot be expected to be able to pronounce well, 
until their ear has, by practice, been accustomed to the sound ; 
only when they are perfectly familiar with it, will they succeed 
in repeating it correctly by themselves. When the sound is 
once acquired, then the teacher may suggest the resemblance 
to some similar sound in the pupils' native tongue, in order to 
assist their memory. 

The French Alphabet contains the following letters : 

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, 
T, U, V, X, Y, Z. 

The majority of these letters are taken from the Roman Alphabet. 
K is only found in foreign words. Q is always accompanied by u, and 
has the same sound as hard c and k. W is not used in French except 
in writing foreign words, like whig, and then pronounced like v. X 
is a compound letter, consisting of e and s, or g and *. Yia called 
i grec, because it was taken from the Greek. 
I* 



10 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 



Five of these letters are called Voioels, from a word which 
originally suggested that they were produced by a simple utter- 
ance of the voice, without the aid of other letters; whilst Con- 
sonants were so called, because they cannot be sounded without 
the assistance of another sound (con-sono). 

A has but one sound, which resembles that of a in father. 

Ex. la, the ; ma, my ; ta, thy ; sa, her ; annales, annals ; carte, 
card. 

E has the sound of e in ell, but accents change it slightly, 
as will be explained under the head of Accents. 

Ex. mor telle, mortal; href, brief: sept, seven. 

/ lias the sound of ee in eel. 

Ex. fie, file; minime, smallest; cirl, heaven ; vie, life. 

has the two sounds which we give to o in the word post- 
office, the former close, the latter open. 

Ex. (close) apdtre, apostle; repos, repose ; sitdt, so soon, 
(open) choc, shock ; social ; soldat, soldier. 

U has no corresponding sound in English. It is pronounced 
by pointing the lips aa if preparing for a whistle. It must be 
heard to l>e imitated, and then requires, like all the sounds, prac- 
tice to become perfectly correct. 

Ex. '■<', seen; fatr, Bate; minute, minute; unt, plain. 

These Vowels, however, suffer certain changes under the 
influence of three causes: the addition of Accents, their com- 
bination with in and n, and their combination with other 
vowels. Y. as a vowel, will be mentioned hereafter. 

1. When they arc accented : 

The French has three accents, viz. : the three signs ( ' ), ( ' ) 
and ( * ), which are placed over the vowels for different pur- 
poses : 



PRONUNCIATION. 11 

The Acute Accent, ', (accent aigu) is placed over the let- 
ter e only, and gives it an acute or sharp sound. 

Ex. cafe, coffee ; celebre, celebrated ; necessite. 

The Grave Accent, ", (accent grave) is placed over the 
vowels a and e and the diphthong ou, and gives them not dif- 
ferent sounds but makes them long or broad. 

Ex. la, there ; pere, father ; oil, where. 

The Circumflex Accent, A , (accent circonflexe) is placed over 
all five vowels and gives them a very long or broad sound. 
Jt generally indicates the loss of a letter next to the accented 
Towel. 

Ex. hate, haste; hdte, host; meme, self; stir, sure. 

The purposes for which the accents are used, are : 

To mark certain inflections, as e. g., the participles past of 
v irbs : 

Ex. Sieve, elevated ; ferme, closed. 

To distinguish two similar words of different meanings : 

Ex. la, the, and la, there ; ou, or, and oil, where ; des, of the, 
and des, since ; a, has, and a, to ; notre, our, and le ndtre, ours ; 
sur, upon, and stir, sure ; du, of the, and dti, due. 

To indicate the loss of a letter : 

Ex. mere, from mater ; pdtre, from pastor ; hdte, from hostis ; 
stir, from securus; epltre, from epistola. 

The effect of the accents on the vowel e is shown in five dif- 
ferent ways. The Acute Accent gives it a sharp sound : 

Ex. celebre, celebrated ; severite, severity. 

The vowel e has the same sound as if it were thus accented, when, 
in final syllables, it is followed by a silent consonant : 

Ex. nez, nose ; placet, petition ; parler, to speak, 
except in tu es, thou art, and il est, he is, where it has a grave 01 
broad sound. 

The Grave Accent gives it a broad sound : 
Ex. frire, brother ; prods, process ; des, since. 



12 ON" LETTERS AJN T I) SYLLABLES. 

The Circumflex Accent gives it a very broad sound. 

Ex. tele, head ; meme, same. 

The absence of any accent produces in monosyllables the so- 
called indefinite sound of e. 

Ex. me, me ; te, thee ; se, one's self; que, that ; le, it ; ne, not. 

The absence of any accent on final e in other words, not 
monosyllables, leaves it perfectly silent. 

Ex. vie, life ; terre, earth ; lane, moon. 

It retains its silent character even, when in the pural an s is added. 
Ex. DM, Pt B, lives; hi:,,s, moons ; armeS, arms. 

The letters 1.1 and ent, in the final syllables of verbs, arealways silent. 

Ex. tout ititet, yon Bay ; Q fluent, they said. 

A' is also unite in <h u ■■.■■. above : eft Mora, below : rest •■/. spring, and 
all words beginning ■with rets; in depr«, degree; denier, farthing; 
.</r. dangerons; so ./, meat, barking; paiement, payment; 
tutoiement, calling others then, and rentemerU, abjuration. 

A mote can never begin a word ; bnt it can l>e found in the first 
syllable, in the middle nnd at the end of a word. 

Ex. tt • Ir, to hold : Bamedi, Saturday ; table, table. 

In the very rare cases, when two or three syllables, each having a 
muie i, follow each other, the first one, when there are two snob «*■, 
and the fir-t two, when there are three, are given the Bo-called indefi- 
nite sound aa in monosyllables. 

Ex. retenir, to detain; reeewnV, to receive; • becuma 

In all other words the rule prevails thai no two mute ,'s can follow 
each oth< r in sue© asion at the end of a word ; and when this should 
happen as the edict of inflection, e. g., In conjugating verbs, certain 
orthogzaphica] remedies are prescribed, which will l«- mentioned In 
their appropriate place. 

Vowels Buffer certain Ibanges of pronanciation, 

2. When they are followed by n or w, in which case they h.-ive 
a nasal sound, inherited by the French from the Latin. 

troll-known thai the Romans gave t.. the final syllables itM, 

MM and others, u nasal sound, which led to their frequent sup- 



PRONUNCIATION. 13 

pression, as was the case always in poetry, where these syllables 
remained altogether silent, when they were followed by a vowel. 

This nasal sound is the same before n and m, so that am is 
pronounced like an, and is produced in the following combina- 
tions : 

am : ambre, amber. em : empire, empire, 

an : roman, novel. en : encre, ink. 

im : impoli, impolite. om : ombre, shade. 

in : enfin, at last. on ; salon, parlor. 

um : parfum, perfume. 

un : brun, brown. 

The nasal sound is not given to these syllables: 

a. When they are followed by a vowel or a second m or n. 
Ex. imiter, to imitate ; inutile, useless ; amener, to bring ; 

omettre, to omit ; uni, united ; flamme, flame ; dilemme, dilem- 
ma; ennemi, enemy ; immobile, immovable; inne, innate ; dom- 
maye, damage ; bonne, good. 

Except when emm and enn begin a word. 

Ex. emmener, to carry off (pronounced as if spelt an-mener) ; ennui, 
weariness ; ennoblir, to ennoble. 

b. When they are found in words taken from foreign 
languages. 

Ex. Ainmon, Emmanuel, commotidi, Jerusalem, amen, Am- 
sterdam. 

Except in the words Adam, Joachim, Quidam, GheruMn and Sera- 
phin, which have the nasal sound, being thoroughly naturalized. 

c. AVhen in precedes the letter k, which is always silent. 
Ex. inhumain, inhuman. 

The syllable en, on the contrary, remains nasal before h, because it 
only occurs before an aspirate h. 
Ex. enhardir, to embolden. 

d. When ent forms the last syllable of the third person 
plural of the verb, when it is altogether silent. 

Ex. Us parlent, they speak ; Us viennent, they come. 



14 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 

The following words are irregular in their pronunciation : 

enitrer, to intoxicate, pronounced an-ivrer. 
enorgueillir, to make proud, pronounced an-orgueillir. 

ennemi, enemy, " en-nemi (not nasal). 

i, nay, " nan-ni. 

hennir, to neigh, " an-nir, 

solennel, solemn, " solanel. 

femme, woman, " fam (not nasal). 

faon, fawn, " fan (nasal). 

paon, peacock, " pan (nasal). 

Loon (city of), " Lan (nasal*. 

1 (city of), " Can (nasal). 

(river of), " Sone. 

monsieur, sir, or Mr. " mosienr. 

Vowels Buffer certain changes of pronunciation. 
3. When they an j<>nn<l to other vowels. 
In French, when two vowels arc combined, they may eithei 
produce together a simple Bound, different from that which they 

produce Beparately, or they may form one syllable, in whi.-h, 

however, each rowel preserves its proper sound. The latter 
combination alone produces diphtho 

a. The following vowels, when joined, produce compound 

sounds : 

"' ) , • 

. have tic sound of French '\ sharp or broad, like < or e, 

. I bave; "ji''nn, affair; pat're, pair; peine, pain; 
. vein. 

.1/ and el, followed by m or //, have the sound <>f i/i. Hence pain, 
bread, and pin, pine-tree, sound alike; so do/aim, hunger, and fin, 
end : deeeein, design, and destin, draw 

.1/ i- pronounced like -/ (i being Bilent) in Montaigne, a proper 

name. 

. \i has the 

El. /'"I"'!, m. .How ; jiii'irrc, poor; mhl.tcr, boldness. 



PEONUKCIATION. 15 

Ou has the sound of oo. 

Ex. clou, nail ; sou, cent ; outil, tool ; boule, bowi. 
Eu has a sound resembling that of u in spur, but it is always 
long. 

Ex. peu, little; seul, alone; meunier, miller. 

It has the sound of u (e heing silent) in certain forms of the verb 
avoir. 
Ex. eu, had ; feus, I had ; que feusse, that I might have. 
The same is the case in djeun, fasting. 
(Eu has the same sound as eu. 
Ex. ceuf, egg ; vceu, vow. 

Oi, has the sound of French oua. 

Ex. moi, me ; roi, king ; gloire, glory ; oie, goose. 

Oi before n is sounded as if it were spelt ouin. 

Ex. foin, hay ; loin, far ; soin, care. 

Oi is somewhat like o (i being silent) in oignon, onion ; encoignure, 
corner angle ; poignard, poniard ; poignee, handful, and a few others. 

If these combinations of vowels have a circumflex accent over the 
second vowel, the souud is lengthened considerably. 

Ex. maitre, master ; voute, vault ; croitre, to grow. 

If it is desirable, for etymological purposes, to preserve the original 
sound of each vowel separately, a diaeresis (") is placed over the second 
vowel. 

Ex. Saul, Saul ; naif, artless ; Mo'ise, Moses ; bdionnette, bayonet. 

The same effect is produced when the first vowel of ei and eu is 
accented. 

Ex. dbeir, to obey ; reussir, to succeed. 

N. B. — Oi was formerly used in many nouns, and always in the im- 
perfect and conditional tenses of verbs, instead of the modern form ai, 
introduced by Voltaire. It had the same sound as ai, which requires 
attention, as many works still retain the former spelling. 

b. All other combinations of vowels produce diphthongs, 
forming either one or two syllables. 

If e should be the first of two such vowels and unaccented, it is 
silent. 
Ex. Jean, John ; flageolet, flageolet ; geolier, jailer. 



16 ON LETTEES AND SYLLABLES. 

If u be the first, it is also silent, when it follows g and q merely 
for the purposes of pronunciation, and does not form part of the sub- 
stance of the word. 

Ex. bague, ring ; gxurir, to cure ; guide, guide ; qui, who ; quand, 
when. 

Tlie pronunciation of diphthongs and the division into syl- 
lables may be practised in the following words : 

a-'-ri-en, ethereal. mi<l, mi-el, honey. 

UnnaS, fo-ma-Sl, [shmaeiL client, client, client. 
chaos, cha-os, chaos. '. o-ri ent, orient. 

i, Pha-ra-on, Pharaoh. union, u-ni-<>n, anion. 
borSal, bo-rfi-al, northern. >. vi-o-lon, violin. 

beatitude, b£*-ti-tu-de, beatitude, reU&r, re-li-er, bind. 
. 6-0 !i en, eolian. . sd ore, sawdust. 

. m&t&ore, meteor. '. tu-ant, killing, 

ft-an-cee, betrothed. ', Ba-la-er, saint.-. 

. poet bruit, bruit, noise. 
made, kick. rite, si-nu-o sit.', sinuosity. 

hen. onfidenoe. 

•.v//-', iiii-i>.'tu(>si-tr, impet- tirieux, Bl-ri-eux, Berious. 
unity. 

When tl'i-ir voweh are combined, two of these will always 
form B < iponod vow.], rach as oi, at, Ott, >", and oh; the 

third eowel, which either precedes or follows this combination, 
ia then pronounced by itael£ If all three form but one syllable, 
the combination is again called a diphtho 

It' . be the Bral of three vowels, or the last, and unaccented, it le- 
nient 

Landsome; Mat, jackdaw j rota, stripe; aria, Bilk. 

Tin- pronunciation of three vowel-, thus combined, and the 
I in the following worda : 

Kniaire, li txi aire, linear. noui, aon-e\ knotted. 
biait, bt-ais, elope. DS bon-ln, baboon 



PRONUNCIATION". 17 

Dieu, Di-eu, God. Gor'notiaille, Cor-nou-aille, (Jorn- 

lueur, lu-eur, light. wallis. 

miauler, mi-au-ler, mew. fouetter, fou-et-ter, to whip. 

rouage, rou-age, carriage. 
The following words containing respectively two and three vowels, 
are pronounced anomalously : 

aout, pronounced ou, August. 

lingual, " lin-gou-al, lingual. 

joaillicr, " jou-a-lier, jeweller. 

ceil, ( with liquid I ) pronounced euil, eye. 

(Billet, " " euil-let, pink. 

ecueil, " e-ceuil, shoal. 

accueil, " " ac-ceuil, reception. 

cercueil, " " cer-ceuil, cofiin. 

cueillir, " " ceuil-lir, gather. 

orgueil, " " or-geuil, pride. 

When four vowels are combined, two form one compound 
vowel, and two, another, which two succeed each other; they 
are pronounced separately in two syllables. 
Ex. je jouai, jou-ai, I played. 
noueux, nou-eux, knotty. 
joueur, jou-eur, gambler. 
bouee, bou-e, buoy. 
The letter y, which in English serves sometimes as a vowel, 
as in paymaster, and at other times as a consonant, as in yes, is 
in French always a vowel, but its pronunciation changes some- 
what, according to its position in a word. 

"When it begins a word, or when it is placed between two 
consonants, it has the sound of i. 

Ex. yeux, eyes ; systime, system ; sybarite, sybarite. 

It becomes nasal, like i, before m and n. 
Ex. symbole, symbol ; syntaxe, syntax. 

"When it succeeds another vowel, it it pronounced like two 
successive i's, the former combining with the vowel that pre- 
cedes it, and the second pronounced by itself, unless it also 



18 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 

should combine with a folfowing vowel, to form a compound 
vowel. 

Ex. ]xiys, pai-i, country. 

moycn, moi-ien, means. 

royal, roi-ial, royal. 

joyeux, joi-ieux, joyeux. 

In the following proper names, y is pronounced like t : 
Bayard, Bayonne, Cayenne, Mayence and Mayenne. 

CONSONANTS. 

Final consonant* are silent, except r, /, I and r, which are 
sometimes sounded ; and n and m are nasal, as has been fully 
explained. 

Kx. chee, at; brevet, brevet; toil, roof; fois, time; avocat, 
advocal ; mass, but; awe, \sith ; chef, chief; canal, canal; stfrvtr, 
to Berve. 

( >;' tiro final cottsowints, the first is sounded, but the second 
is silent. 

Ex. canard, dnck ; tori, fate; sata^ saint 

Of three final consonants, the first is sounded, and the last 
two arc silent 

Ex. remords, remorse; prompt prompt; tempt, tune. 

B haa the same Bonnd :is in English. 

Ex. Babylone, Babylon; bouU, ball; eaoafe, cabal. 

l'inal o is pronoonced in the proper namei STooft, J"'/*. .7^&, Jacob, 

and in <•/»//.,• rUfflO, point <>f the Ofimpaw. Sttd radouk, refitting. 

Doable b is proaoaneed like a single b. 

tabbat, sabbath; rabbin rabbi; abbe, abbot. 

C has two sounds, according to the letter that immediately 

follows. 

It is hard, like the English k, before the vowels a, o and ", 
and before consonants. 

Cologne; cart*, pastor; climal, 
climate; aetif, active ; era — l a, cravat 



CONSONANTS. 19 

When it is desirable, for etymological purposes, to give to e a soft 
sound (tLat of s in English) before a, o and u, a cedilla (c) is added. 

Ex. face, facade ; house-front ; leeon, lesson ; recevoir ; reeu, re- 
ceived. 

It is soft, like the English s, before the vowels e, i and y. 
Ex. cedre, cedar ; Cecile, Caecilia ; cypres, cypress. 

When it is desirable, for etymological purposes, to give the hard 
sound of k to e before these vowels, c is changed rinto qu, but u re- 
mains silent. 

Ex. vaincre : vous vainquez, you conquer ; puNie, publique, public. 

C, before a, o and u, and before qu has the sound of k. 
Ex. accabler, to overwhelm ; accomplir, to accomplish ; ac- 
cuser, to accuse ; acquerir, to acquire. 

Both c's are heard mpeccavi, repentance, and the derivatives of the 
Latin verb peccare. 

C, before e, i and y, is pronounced as in English. 
Ex. succes, success ; Occident, west ; acces, attack. 
C is commonly pronounced at the end of words. 
Ex. bee, beak ; aqueduc, acqueduct ; Turc, Turk. 

G is silent, however, although final, in these words: estoma-c, 
stomach ; echecs, chess ; jonc, reed ; banc, bench ; tronc, trunk ; aecroc, 
rent ; pore, pork ; tabac, tobacco, and a few others. C has the sound 
of g in second, second, and its derivatives. C has the sound of ch in 
the Italian words violoncelle, termicelle. 

Ch has the sound of English sh. 

Ex. chat, cat ; cher, dear ; chose, thing ; chute, fall. 

It is sounded like k, however, in words of Greek or Oriental 
origin. 

Ex. archange, archangel ; echo, echo ; chaos, chaos ; choeur, 
chorus; orchestre, orchestra; patriarchal. 

When these words have become perfectly naturalized, the sound 
of sh is substituted for that of Jc. 
Ex. patriarclie ; archeveque, archbishop ; bachique, bacchic. 
Hence the difference between archeohgique (k sound) and chirurgien 



■20 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 

(s7i sound) ; Ohaldee (Jc sound) and AcJiilh (sh sound). Machiavelli is 
pronounced soft, as Machiavel, but Michele Angelo hard, as Michel- 
Ange. 

It is sounded like k also, wherever it precedes a consonant : 
Ex. Chretien, Christian; technique, technical; Utrecht. 
It is silent in almanack. 

In words ending in ct, both consonants are commonly sounded. 

Ex. exact, err* ct, direct. 
C only is sounded in aspect, respect, and circoiispcct ; and c and t arc 
both silent in instinct and amid, amice. 

J) baa the same sound as in English. 

Ex. David; Adam; redoubler, to redouble; admirable. 

Final -/ is silent, except in some proper names, as David, 
Joady Talmud, snd in eud, south. 

It takes the sound of t, when it ends a word connected in meaning 

with the next word, and this begins with a vowel. 

Ex. gra d homme, great man ; prqfond abUne, deep abyss ; enU ntW, 
docs In- hear '.' 

Dd is Bounded like single >K except in addition and its de- 
rivatives, and in reddition, where both </'s are heard. 
F lias the same sound as in English. 
Ex.Jini, finished ; a/En, in order ; bref % in short. 
Final /is generally pronounced. 
Ex. '"'.''. chief; vif, lively; baeuf, beef. 

Bui it is silent in r'./, key; in neuf, nine; an/, egg; l»nij\ beef 
(when followed by s consonant), and in the three plurals, 
nerves; aufii and bauje, and in the compounds of ew^, as crf-culint, 
kite. I wskin, the last / only is heard. 

^ like c, h la, according to the letter that imme- 

diately follows it. 

It is A rrrf, like the English g in good, before the vowels a, o, 
and ", and before consonants. 

Ex. garde, guard : swell ; guttural; gloire, glory; 

g ..able. 



CONSONANTS. 21 

When it is desirable, for etymological purposes, to give to g a soft 
sound before a, o and u r a silent e is inserted between g and the next 
vowel. 

Ex. dbligeant, obliging ; geole, jail ; gageure, bet. 

It is soft, like the English s in pleasure, before the vowels e, 
i and y. 

Ex. general ; gingembre, ginger ; gymnaste. 

When it is desirable, for etymological purposes, to give the hard 
soimd to g before the vowels e and i, a silent u is inserted between g 
and the vowel. 

Ex. guerre, war ; guide, guide ; vague, wave ; gueux, beggarly. 

In the following words, however, u and i are pronounced separately, 
as a genuine diphthong : aiguille, needle ; aiguiser, to sharpen ; aiguil- 
lon, sting; linguiste, linguist; inextinguible, inextinguishable, and 
the proper names, Guise, le Guide (Guido Beni), and Guizot. 

When it is desirable to pronounce this u, on account of its import- 
ance as part of the word, the following e is written with a diaeresis. 

Ex. cigue, ci-gue, hemlock ; aigue, ai-gue, acute. 

In the words ambiguite, arguer, u is pronounced distinctly. 

Final g is silent, except in joug, yoke, zig-zag, and in a few 
foreign names, as Agag. It has a hard sound in bourg, borough, 
and in bourgmestre, burgomaster. 

Gl is pronounced like the 11 in brilliant, by pronouncing the. 
I first, and giving to g the sound of English y in yes. 

Ex. imbroglio, im-brol-yee-o ; Broglie, Brol-yee. 

Gg is pronounced like a single g, except before e, when the 
first g is hard and the second soft. 

Ex. suggerer, to suggest ; suggestion. 

Gn, like gl, is pronounced as if n was written first and fol- 
lowed by a y, with the 'sound of the English y in yes. 

Ex. ignorant, in-yo-ran ; signal, sin-yal ; digne, worthy; 
agneau, lamb ; gagner, to gain ; compagnie, company. 

In the beginning of words, and when the syllables divide between 
g and n, gn has the same sound as in English. 

Ex. gnome ; gnostique, gnostic ; agnation, st ignation, etc. 



22 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 

Gs and gl are silent in legs, legacy ; doigt, and vingt, 
twenty. 

(7 itself is silent in signet, tassel, and the proper names Clugny, 
Begnaud, Begnard, whilst the first g in gangrene has the sound of k. 

iaTis either aspirate or silent. 

When it is aspirate, it has not the sound of an English A, 
but produces simply the effect of a slight pause, or a hiatus. 
As it cannot be seen when h is aspirate and when mute, the 
former is always marked by some sign in dictionaries. The 
rules, however, by which to distinguish the two, are easy to 
those who are familiar with other languages. It is this : (a). 
"Words, beginning with h, which arc derived from Latin, have a 
silent //, it being preserved only for etymological purposes. 

Ex. honneur, honor ; homme, homo; histoire, historia. 

The words "hint, hen : harpid, harpy ; hennir, to neigh, and hnru 
t, r, to haunt, are exceptions to this rule, having an aspirated /;. 

b. In all other words h is aspirate.], viz. : 

In words derived from the German. 

Ex. hache, axe; htraut, herald; hibou, owl; houx, holly; 
hurUr, to howL 

In words where h is placed between two vowels. 

Ex. cohue, crowd ; ahan. 

In the names of countries and cities. 

Ex. I" Hongr%$, Hungary; la Hollande, Hamboura. 

Frequent oae haflj however, removed the aspiration in some of these 
names, where they an used as adjectives. 
K\. V d li . Dutch linen ; ftomage oTHbUomde, Dutch 

cheese . Hun J irj water. 

It will be si .11, hereafter, that the effect of the aspirated h \a to 
pxevent elision : hence, le ho nard, the lobster : la houttk . the coaL 

J has the sound of s in pleasure, corresponding to the soft 

Bound of g. 

Ex. j'im<tis, ever; JCsus; joujou, plaything; jurer, to swear. 



CONSONANTS. 23 

K, which occurs only in words of foreign origin, has the 
sound of the English k. 

Ex. kermesse, a festival ; kiosquc, kiosk ; kilometre, a measure. 

L simple is pronounced as in English. 

Ex. laurier, laurel ; livre, book ; loge, box ; lune, moon. 

Final / is ordinarily pronounced. 

Ex. mal, ill ; del, heaven ; fol, mad. 

But it is silent in baril, barrel ; chenil, kennel ; coutil, ticking ; cul, 
seat ; fournil, bakehouse ; fusil, gun ; gr il, gridiron ; gentil, gentle ; 
nombril ; outil, tool ; persil, parsley ; saoul, drunk ; sourcil, eyebrow. 

In pouls, pulse, both final consonants are silent, as also in aulx, 
garlic. Fits, son, is pronounced without the I, but the s is heard, to 
distinguish it from fil, thread, in which the I is heard. 

L preceded by i has a liquid sound, which has to be learned 
from the teacher's lips ; it approaches that of the English word 
brilliant. 

Ex. travail, labor; orgueil, pride; sommeil, sleep. 

From this rule are excepted il, he or it ; fil, thread ; mil, thousand ; 
all adjectives in il, and those words above mentioned, in which 
* is silent. 

LI, preceded by i, has generally the same liquid sound. 
Ex. fille, daughter; oreille, ear; feuille, sheet; tailleur, 
tailor. 

From this rule are excepted mile, town ; mille, thousand and its 
derivatives, and all words beginning with ill, as illustre, illustrious, 
illegitime, illegitimate ; illusion, etc. Excepted are also the cities of 
Lille and Seville, the name of Achille and few others. 

Both l'$ in 11 are heard in alleger, to allege ; allegorie, allusion, belli' 
gerant, collaborateur; colloque, colloquy ; constellation, ellebore, gallican, 
gallicanisme, hellenisme, intelligent; libeller, to libel ; rebellion, solliciter, 
veUeite, and some of their derivatives. 

LI is pronounced like single I in college and collation. 

Lh is pronounced like single I, except in proper names, as 
Milhaud and Sardailhac, where it is liquid. 



24 OX LETTERS AXD SYLLABLES. 

M has the same sound as in English, except when final, in 
which case it has a nasal sound, as mentioned above, and docs 
not differ from n. 

It has also the sound of n, when it precedes m, b or p. 

Ex. emmener, to carry off; combler, to overwhelm ; comparer. 

Mm is generally pronounced like single m. 
Ex. grammuire ; commix, clerk; dilemme, dilemma. 
N lias the same sound as in English, except when final, in 
which case it has a nasal sound, as mentioned above. 

After both m and n, final consonants become silent. 

Ex. tf /////.v. time ; \ 

Except in the following words, in which all consonants are sounded : 
c> ns. census (when nut followed by commuri) ; distinct, 

•4, larynx, lynx, tfihynx; and tine, zinc, n is silent in the proper 
name of Reams. 

/' baa the Bame Bound as in English. 

Ex. /<■ /. dang ; pommade, pomatnm. 

Tt is Bllenl in bapt&m . baptism, and Beveral of its derivatives ; damp- 
tir, ti> Miii.: ; '■ r, to carve ; sept, seven, and 

its deiival 

It is pronoonoed in bo. wre and exemption, 

. rally in the middle <>f a word. 

Final /' is silent) except in cap, cape; jalap, jalap ; julep, 
jalap; W-/>, and in proper names. Both of the final consonants 
are heard in laps, interval ; relaps, relapse, and rapt, rape. 

I'll U pronounced I i k . • / '. 

Ex. phare, lighthoose; phosphore, phosphorus; philosopke. 

I'ji is Bounded like sing 

Ex. >i}>i»l<i\ a-pe-ler, t>> call ; frapp r, fra-per, to strike. 

Q is always followed by n and pronounced like k-. 

Ex. quart, fourth ; gui, who; quotidien, daily ; queue, tail. 

it has ii" u :••' bock : cinq, five ; n'»r in piq&re, pricking, 

ti. avoid 



CONSONANTS. 25 

It is pronounced like kou before a in the following words : 
aquatile, aquarelle, aqUatique; equateur, equator ; liquation, loqua- 
cite, quadruple, and words of the same root, except quadrille, 
where it has the sound of k, quartz ; and quaere, quaker. 

Both letters q and u are heard distinctly, like qu in equestre, 
equestrian ; equilateral and all mathematical words beginning 
with equi ; liquefaction; questeur, questor ; quiet, and its deriv- 
atives ; quiproquo, quolibet, quinconce and all words in which 
quin stands for five, except quincailler, ironmonger, and its 
derivatives. 

It has the sound of k in Quinte-Curce, Quintus-Curtius, and Quin- 
tilien. 

Both sounds of k and of kou are heard in succession in words like 
quinquagesime and quinquagenaire, a man of fifty. 

R has the same sound as in English, but it is more strongly 
marked and " rolled," as it is commonly called. 

Ex. ragout; regie, rule; rivage, bank; rouge, red; ordre, 
order; trace ; vendre, to sell. 

Final r is silent after e, which is pronounced like e. 

Ex. dernier, last ; parler, to speak ; officier, officer. 

Except in cher, dear ; mer, sea ; amer, bitter ; Mer, yesterday ; 
avant-hier, before yesterday ; cuiller, spoon ; ether, ether ; fer, iron ; 
enfer, hell ; Jiiver, winter ; lucifer, magister ; outremer, ultramarine ; 
•pater, Lord's prayer ; ver, worm, and some proper names, as Jupiter, 
Esther, Niger. 

Final r is pronounced after the vowels a, i, o and u. 
Ex. char, car; or, gold ; servir, to serve; erreur, error. 

Except in monsieur, sir, where it is always silent. 

R is silent in notre, our, and voire, your, before a consonant. 

Ex. notre maison not' maison) ; voire sceur (vof soeur), your sister. 

Rr is pronounced like a single r. 

Ex. parrain, godfather ; carrosse, carriage ; guerre, war. 
2 



26 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 

Except in aberration; concurrence; abhorrer, to abhor; errata; 
errer, to err, and its derivatives; horreur, horror ; Iiorrible ; inter- 
regnc, interregnum: narration; terreur, terror ; torrent; terrifier ; 
in most -words beginning with ir, as iirreguHer, and in the future and 
conditional of verbs, like acquerir, to acquire ; mourir, to die, aud 
ceurir, to run, as will be seen in the chapter of verbs. 

Rh is pronounced like r alone. 

Ex. rhume, cold; rt/ihme, rhythmus 

All final consonants are silent after r. 

Ex. inert, death; serf, fate; regard, glance. 

Except man, March ; ours, bear; pare, park, where both are heard. 

S lias a sharp sound like 88 in English and a soft sound like 
English t. 

It is hard at the beginning of words, when followed by a 
vowel or a consonant. 

'our, stay; ton, sound; suae, sugar; scan- 
dal, ; scorpion; ntotnae, Btomacfa ; squelette, skeleton, 

When iii the middle of a word it is preceded or followed by 

:;ant. 

Ex. absoltt, absolute; converter, to converse; loraque % when. 
And when it i- double. 

Ex. coueein, cushion; baese, base; ro»*e % jade; Rueee, Rus- 
sian ; poisxon, tish. 

These words must be carefully distinguished from cousin, cousin ; 
base, base; oison, and ruse, cunning, win-re the s 

It i> so/V, when single and standing between two vowels or 
followed by hva 

Ex. maieon, housi shave; dishonneur, dishonor. 

1 cept that it is hard in compound words, where e was original!? 
Initial, as in ' ■ . likely ; In a few words 

of fori Ign origin, ai (J and resorption, and in the ten 

the verb ^Mr, BO lie. 



CONSONANTS. 27 

It is soft in Jersey, Alsace ; balsamine, balsam ; presbytere, and like 
derivatives, when followed by b, and in tbe syllable trans, as in trans- 
action; but not in transir, to chill. 

It is silent in the proper name Duguesclin. 

See and sci are pronounced like ce and ci. 

Ex. seine, stage ; science ; scelerat, rascal. 

St is sounded in est, east; ouest, west; lest, ballast; Chris* 
(except in Jesus- Christ, when it is silent); in antichrist, test, 
and the name of the city of Brest. 

Final s is generally silent, as in the plural of nouns and the 
verbs; but is is pronounced in fils, son; aloes ; as, ace; atlas; 
blocus, blockade ; cens, census ; dervis, dervish ; en sus, beside ; 
iris ; jadis, formerly ; lis, lily ; ma'is, maize ; mars, March ; 
metis, mongrel ; mceurs, manners ; tous, all (when a pronoun) ; 
ours, bear ; plus, more (when final) ; vis, screw ; in foreign 
words, as gratis, tetanos, etc., and in some proper names, as in 
Rheims, Brutus, Gil Bias, etc., although it is silent in Mathias, 
Judas, Thomas. 

T has two sounds: one like the English t in to; the other 
like the French sound of c before i. 

It is hard at the beginning and in the middle of words. 

Ex. tabac, tobacco ; tenebres, darkness ; torrent, tumulte, ana- 
tomie ; entamer, to touch ; baton, stick. 

It is soft, in the final syllable tion. 

Ex. satisfaction; petition, pe-ti-ci-on ; patience, pa-ci-ence. 

And in the following words : argutie, cavil ; initier, to ini- 
tiate ; balbutier, to stammer; calvitie, baldness; facetie, jest; 
inertie, inertness ; imperitie, want of experience ; patient and 
patience ; minutie, trifle ; peripetie, change of fortune ; pro- 
phelie ; satiete, satiety ; aristocratie, and all words ending in 
atie and their derivations, and in some proper names, as Dio- 
cletien, and Venitien. 

It retains its hard sound in all combinations of tie. 

Ex. tien, thine; tiers, third; amitie, friendship; entier, entire. 



28 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 

Tt is somewhat like a single t, except in attique, attic; atti- 
cisme, guttural and pittoresque, picturesque, where both are heard. 

Final t is generally silent. 

Ex. mot, word; rat, rat; est (pronounced £), is. 

Except in admit, aconite ; brut, rough; chut, hush; cobalt, 
comput, accessit ; dot, dowry; deficit ; fat, coxcomb ; fret, 
freight ; granit ; in sept, seven, and kuit, eight (when they are 
not followed by a consonant); in indult ; lut, lute; malt; 
mat, impolished ; net, neat; opiat ; occiput; pat, stale mate; 
t ; rapt, rape ; rit, rite, and in all Latin words. 

It is always silent in ct, and in ent, the termination of the third per- 
son plural of verbs, which is altogether silent, 

TIi is pronounced like a single /, it being a mere etymo- 
logical sign of Greek, Hebrew, and foreign words generally. 
Ex. (hi, tea; t : Intke; than, tunnyfish. 

It is altogether silent in asthms, pronounced 

V baa th . Mi. 

. empty; voleur, thief ; veuve, widow. 
H\ whirh occurs only in foreign words, with the educated 
retains the Bound it baa at borne. 

Ex. N '. Washington, Westphalie, 

With the mass <>f the people, it is apt to be sounded like .<?, 
and the name of the Scotchman Law i< pronounced Lasse. 
A', which also occurs principally in foreign words only, has 

inds. 
It is pronounced like k» in the middle •>(' words. 

.■ luxe, luxun ; 
It is pronounced like gs at the beginning of proper n 
Ex. X iphon. 

And in the words beginning with ex, followed by a vowel. 

■ heat favorably. 
It is pronounced like « in six, six ; dix, ten; eoisante, sixty, 
and in the proper nan, \erre, Auxoi telles. 



PRONUNCIATION IN READING AND SPEAKING. 29 

It is pronounced like z in the derivatives of deux, two ; as 
deuxicme, second ; of six, as sixieme, sixth ; of dix, as dixieme, 
tenth ; and their compounds, as dix-se.pt, seventeen. 

Final x is silent, except in proper names, where it is sounded 
like ks. 

Ex. Ajax, Phenix. 

In cocatrix, cochatrice ; prefix, and Aix la-Chapelle, and in 
words derived from Latin or Greek, as in lynx, sphynx, index 
etc. 

Z is pronounced as the English z in zest. 

Ex. zone, Zacharie, zephyr. 

Final z is sounded only in foreign names, as Suez, Cortez, and 
in Metz. 



PRONUNCIATION IN READING AND SPEAKING. 

The consonants have besides the sound which is given to them 
in the word to which they belong, often another or an ad- 
ditional sound, when they occur in connected sentences, which 
are read or spoken. The two principal rules on this subjet are : 

1. Final consonants, preceding a word that begins with a 
vowel or h mute, are generally pronounced as if they were the 
initial letter of the second word, provided the two words, thus 
to be connected in sound, are also connected in meaning, as 
adjectives before nouns or pronouns before verbs. 

Ex. mon ami, mo-nami ; petit enfant, peti-tenfant ; nous 
avons, nou-zavons ; Us ont, il-zont. 

2. When a word ending in e mute is followed by one begin- 
ning with a vow T el or h mute, the last consonant of the first is 
in the same manner pronounced as if it formed the initial of the 
second word. 

Ex. la France entiere, la Fran-cen-ti-ere ; Vhonnete homme, 
1'honne-tomme. 

The following words are excepted from this rule, and treated 



oO OX LETTEE3 AND SYLLABLES. 

as if they began with a consonant, so that no connection takes 
place between them and the preceding word : 

Et, aud ; oui, yes ; onze, eleven, with its derivatives ; uniema, 
first; yacht, yatayan; yole, yawl; ouest, west, and the interjec- 
tions beginning with a vowel, as ah ! oh ! ouf! etc. 

Final consonants, when thus transferred, as it were, to the 
next word, change their sounds slightly. This is done in the 
following manner : 

C becomes k. 

Ex. franc-arbitre, free will ; pore-epic, porcupine. 

D becomes /. 

Ex. un grand-homme, a great man ; pied-h-terre, a place to 
alight; line grande-ama, a great heart. 

The following words ending In d t donotonite with the next word: 
fjh ' il. warm : / /</. oold : ' rd. edge ; gland, B corn ; gond, hinge; 
nid, '• -' '• except in compounds. 

F becom. 

Ex. neuf ana, aea-vana, nine years; vxf amour, vi-vamour, 
warm love. 

becomes i. 

Ex. <l< rang <>, rang, from rank to rank; un lony acces, a 
long attack. 

/. is never connected with the next word, except when it is 
Bounded already in a single woid. Otherwise, it retains its 
sound. 

Ex. // eat, he his; il y <»/, there was. 

Tlie word //' ntiZ changes tie-' f into a. liquid sound before vowels, ns 
in nn gantO enfant, s pretty child. This does uol apply, however, to 

the plural. 

X, when nasal, changes into the sound of nn, of which the 

fir.st is nasal and the second united with the next word. 
Ex. nun ami, my friend; son konnaur, his honor. 



PKONUJsrciATioisr iisr heading and speaking. 31 

If nasal n should end a noun, it retains its original sound and is not 
connected with the next word. 

Ex. une passion aveugle, a blind passion. 

If n should be followed by a final consonant, the latter alone 
is transferred to the next word, unless it be c or p, which remain 
silent. 

Ex. un savant artiste, a learned artist. But un champ ensemence, 
a sowed field. 

The letter t of the syllable ent in verbs, which is silent, is 
nevertheless connected with the next word. 

Ex. lis parlaient ensemble, they spoke together ; Us sont ici, 
they are here. 

P is connected with the next word only in the words coup, 
blow ; trop, too much, and beaucoup, much. 

Ex. II a trop aime, he has loved too much ; un coup atrocc, 
a fearful blow. 

Q becomes k. • 

Ex. cinq ans, five years ; coq-a-Vane, cock and bull story. 

R remains silent in the infinitives in er, except in poetry, and 
in monsieur. In other cases, it is connected with the next 
word. 

When r is followed by a final consonant, the latter remains silent, 
and r alone is connected with the next word ; c, however, is always 
sounded. 

Ex. un sort agreable, a plaisant fate; un tort enorme, grievous 
wrong ; arc-en-ciel, rainbow. 

S becomes z. 

Ex. vous avez, you have ; elles avaient, they had. 

Final s in the inflections of the verb is carried only in poetry. 

T at the end of nouns is not carried to the next word, 
except in but, end, unless it was already previously pronounced, 
as in fat, coxcomb. All final £'s, however, are sounded in 
poetry, except in et, and. 



32 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 

T is carried in fort, when it means very, but r only, when it means 
strong. 

Ex. i£ erf /<?>•£ aimable, he is very good. But 
I? <^ /or£ e£ grand, he is strong and tall. 

T is always carried in est, is, hut never sounded in et, and. 

Ex. 11 est excellent, he is excellent ; elle est lieureuse, she is 
happy. 

X becomes z. 

Ex. aux enfants, to the children ; sit hommes, six men. 

Z is carried only in dignified style and poetry; ordinarily it 
is heard only in the second person plural of verbs. 

Ex. vous avez eu, you have had; vous a>:it~ etc, you had 
been. 

IT.— ELISION. 

The three vowels ". * and i are, nnder certain circumstance*, 
suppressed or elided, and this process is called Elision. It is 
always indicated by .-i sign I ' ), called an Apostrophe, which 
takes the place of the elided vowel. The effect of elision is 
thai the two words, that which h;is lost its final vowel and the 
in- v t word, which begins with a vowel or h unite, are pro- 
nounced as one word. 

. the man; Vhonneur, loncur, the honor. 
The vowel j is elided only in the word si, if, when it pre- 
cedes the two prononni il, he, and Us, they. 

Ex. (si il) s'U vient, if he comes; (si vulent, if 

they will. 

The vowel <» is elided only in the feminine of the article hi, 
the, and the feminine of the personal pronoun /", her, but 
all vowels and before h n 

'amis, the friend; (la habitude), flu/H- 
the babil ; je (la aime) taime, 1 love her; il (la usurpe) 
Tusurpe, he osnrps il il (la honore) F honors, he 

- her. 



ELISION. 83 

The vowel e is elided, when it is unaccented, at the end of a 
monosyllabic word or of some compounds with que, that, before 
all vowels and h mute. 

Ex. (je aspire) f aspire, I aspire; elle (me adore) nC adore, 
she worships me ; Us (le honorent) Vhonorent, they honor 
him ; on (se habille) sliabille, they are dressing ; fy cours, I 
run there; (ce est) c'est bon, that is right; quoiqu'il vienne, 
although he come ; parce qu'elle lit, because she reads. 

E ntre elides its final e before reciprocal verbs, with wliicli it forma 
a compound. 

Ex. s'entr'aider (se entre aider), to help each other ; s'entr'ouvrir 
(se entre ouvrir), to commune with each other; s' 'entr 'accuser, to 
accuse each other. 

Jusque elides its e before a, au, aux and ici. 

Ex. jusqu'd Borne, as far as Rome ; jusqu'au del, up to heaven ; 
jusqu'aux nues, to the clouds ; jusqu'iei, until now. 

Pidsque and quoique elide their e only when followed by il, Us, elle, 
elles, on, un and une, or a word with which they are indissolubly 
connected. 

Ex. puisqu'ainsi est, since it is so ; puisqu'elle lejoeut, since she willa 
it so ; quoiqu'on soit, although they be. 

But we must write : quoique etranger, although a stranger ; puisqm 
invisible, since invisible. 

Quelque elides its e only before un, une, quelqu'un, quelqu'une, and 
in quel qu'il soit and quelle qu'elle soit. Hence we must say quelque 
He, some island, and quelque espoir, some hope. Quelqu' autre is used 
by some authors. 

Presque elides its e only in presqu'ile, peninsula. 

No elision tabes place when there is no mental connection 
between the two words, which would otherwise be subject to 
these rules. Hence, e. g., when le, la and other pronouns are 
placed after their verbs, they are not elided, although they may 
be followed by a vowel, because they belong to the verb and 
not to the next word. 

Ex. Menez-le a Paris, take him to Paris ; prenez-la avec vous, 
take it with you. 



3 J OX LETTEES AND SYLLABLES. 

Nor will any elision take place before those exceptional 
words, which, although beginning with a vowel or h mute, aio 
treated as if their initial letter were a consonant. 

Ex. le huitibne, the eighth ; le onzieme, the eleventh ; lea out 
et non, the ayes and noes. 

An anomalous elision takes place in the word grands, which loses 
its final e before certain nouns beginning with a consonant, with 
which it forms a kind of compound noun. 

Ex. grand' mire, grandmother ; grand' meese, high mass ; grand' cvtte, 
mainmast, etc. 

It must not be forgotten that no elision takes place before aspi- 
ratod h. 

Ex. le Jiamcau, the hamlet ; l<: Tliros, the hero. 



III.— SYLLABICATION. 

French words are, like English words, divided into syllables, 
but the maimer of dividing them differs in the two languages. 
The following rales have to be observed in French : 

1. A consonant between t\\<> vowels goes with the secondj 
and not, h, with the first vowel. 

Ex. Hti-ri, husband; phi-hsophe, philosopher. 

This rule i> all the more important as it affects, of course, the 
pronnnoiation also. The pronounce med-icine, the 

French mide^dntj they say pol-itics, the French &aj 
Hque. 

2. Two <(.us, .Hants between two vowels divide so that 
one goes with the . the other with the following 
rowel 

Ex. j-ar-ti, party; froo-per, to Btrike; er-reur, error, 

• two consonants can be produced by one utterance, 
sach as in; <■/. ,r, and others. These combinations are the same 
in French as in English, and here the two consonants ■. 
with the second vowel. 

Ex. o-ori, shelter ; )i'-c/ain<\ puff; ro-mw, sugar-dish. 



QUANTITY. 35 

3. With three consonants, the syllables divide between the 
second and third. 

Ex. obs-cur, obscure ; arc-tique, arctic, 
unless the three consonants also can be pronounced in one im- 
pulse of the voice, when the division is made after the first con- 
sonant. 

Ex. at-tri-but, attribute ; ac-trice, actress. 

4. With four consonants, two go with the first and two with 
the second syllable. 

Ex. obs-tructif, obstructive ; abs-trait, abstruse. 

5. When two or more vowels meet, the manner of dividing 
them depends on the rules given before, which state when they 
form one or more syllables, and examples have been given there 
as to the proper division. 

IV.— QUANTITY. 

Quantity means in French simply the longer or shorter time 
which is given to the pronunciation of a syllable. It has no- 
thing to do with the accent of the voice, which raises or lowers 
the latter, but does not lengthen or shorten the word. The 
French has very minute and strict rules on this part of pronun- 
ciation, of which the following are the most important : 

1. Every syllable ending in a consonant (except s and z) is 
short. 

Ex. sac, sack; nectar; fU, thread; pot, pot; but, en d. 

2. Every masculine syllable becomes long in the plural. 
Ex. sacs ; sels, salts ; pots. 

3. Every masculine singular, ending in s, x or z, is long. 
Ex. temps, time ; riez, nose ; volx, voice. 

4. Nasal vowels followed by consonants (except m and n) arc 
long. 

Ex. jambe, leg; crainte, fear; humble ; tomber, to fall ; 
but followed by m and n, they are short. 

Ex. epigramme ; personne, somebody : premie, take. 



36 



ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 



5. Every syllable ending in r and not followed by r, is short. 
Ex. barbe, beard ; berceau, cradle ; infirme, ordre, 

but if followed by r, it is long. 

Ex. arre% sentence ; bkarre, odd ; tonnerre, thunder. 

6. Placed between two vowels, of which the second is mute, 
s and z lenghthen the first. 

Ex. Inltt', basis ; bttisr, blunder ; epouse, wife. 

ling another consonant shortens the syllable be- 
fore it. 

Ex. masque, mask ; astre, star ; burlesque. 

. Snal mute e lengthens the vowel preceding it. 

Ex. pensee, thought; jb< .]•>)' \ iljoue, he plays, rue, street. 

!'. Every other vowel following another vowel renders it 
short 

1a. cri ■ . created ; ac&on ; hah; t<> hate ; titer, to kill. 

In th<; following wmds which arc Bounded alike, quantity 
;, bermines the meaning, hut only the more important 

words and - t ordinarily have been given. 



::iri>. 

tool. 

~;id.lle. 

b~'„ll. 1 
chair, i 

tSte, ri!>. 

r corse. 
I , lie foam 

.Mini it. file feast. 



8UOHT. 
acre, acre ( ol land). 

breath. 
. Ivent 
to rent. 
b ata 

. he limps, 
.• od. 

r!,: r, ilar. 
tiire, clerk. 

in. 
00U . numerical murk. 

Bid, 

Klir. 

cn'ir, leather. 
ddn, gift. 
faUe, done (pari pnst). 



PUNCTUATION. 



37 



faix, burden. j 

fais (tu), tlioa doest. j 

foret, forest. 

fumes (nous), we were. 

gram, grave. 

hale, burning air. 

jais,jet. 

jeune, fasting. 

legs, legacy. 

laisse (je), I let 
matin, dog. 
muis, month. 
munt, mountain. 
mur, ripe. 
masse, end of cue. 
pecher, to sin. 
pene, part of lock. 
pleine, plain. 
saut, leap. 

saint, saint. 

scene, scene. 
cene, Lord's supper. 
saine, sound. 
tache, task. 
tres, very. 
vaine, vain. 
vivres, victuals. 
•ooix, voice. 
«oZer, to steal. 



fait (il), he does. 

/oref, borer. 
fume (je), I smoke. 
grave (il), be engraves. 
/taZfo, ball. 
jet, throw. 
jeune, young. 

ilai, layman. 
laid, uglay. 
lait, milk. 
laisse, leash. 
matin, morning. 
mm, me. 
mdn, my. 
mwr, wall. 
masse, mass. 
pecher, to fish. 
peine, pain. 
pleine, full. 
sctf, fool. 



cem£, girt. 
sem#, signature. 
jSeme, (river). 



£acAe, spot. 
trait, feature. 
mine, vein. 
ewre, to live. 
vent, (il), he se 
vdler, to fly. 



V.— PUNCTUATION. 

The marks of Punctuation are the same in French as in Eng- 
lish, with the addition of a few peculiar to French. They are 
the following : 



38 



ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 



Comma. 

Semicolon, 

Colon, 

Period, 

Note of exclamation, 

Note of interrogation, 

Parenthesis, 

Dash, 

Quotation mark, 

Cedilla, 

Hyphen, 

Apostroohr, 



calied in French Virgule. 

" Point it cirgule. 
" " Deux points. 

Point. 
" " Point (P exclamation 

" " Point d' interrogation 

" " Parenthese. 

Tin t. 
" " Gu&emets. 

CediBe. 
" " Tremo, 

" " Trait d' union. 

" " Apostrophe. 



A LIST OK THK MOST COMMON ABBREVIATIONS IN* FRENCH. 



A. P. d protest* r, to be protest* d. 
A. s. P. a , ''.', ac- 

oepted withoul protest 
A. B.F 

xpte. 

/.. baron. 
ironne, ban i 
I r, knight. 

■ ml 

ci urn toss. 
!> i). m Deo Optimo Maximo. 

odor. 
D m or D. M. doctor of Medi- 
cine. 

I.I, A A. II. / 

t, Their [mperial High- 
Dest 

I.:., a \ BB /.. .1 

lee, Their Royal Highi 
Li, Em Leurt Eminences, Their 

Emm 

LL. l. Ueneee, Their 

Bzeelli 



M '•' / miss. 

Mgr. '■' 

marques. 
Id marchioness. 

MM. ' s, MesBTB. 

M" 11, mad ■ ■•■ . Mrs. 
Mat. manuscrit, MS. 
\. B. :• 

N l> ' < Mir I.ady. 

i. wholesale me* 

\ •. number, No. 

N.-S. A . «>ur Lord. 

N.-S. J.»\ X,S.J,-x„x.< ■/,,-!>(. 

e ■■'. per •■••nt. 
P. s. post seriptum, P. S. 
K P, Se\ r. nd Pere, Revd Father. 
S. A. I /• . His 

[mperial Highness. 
S A I: , His Royal 

Highi 
B.A.S. 8 A >'/.'.,<■*«/«., IliuSe 

nno lIL'huusi 



NOUN'S. 



39 



LL. HH. Lews Hautesses, Their 

Highnesses. 
LL. MM. Leurs Majestes, Their 

Majesties. 
LL. MM. II. LL. MM. Imp' r tales, 

Their Imperial Majesties. 
LL. MM. RR. LL. MM. Royales, 

Their Royal Majesties. 
M. or M r monsieur, Mr. 
M. A. maison assuree, insured. 
M. A. C. I. M. A. contre Vincendie, 

insured against fire. 
M d mwrcliand, merchant. 



S. E. Son Eminence. 

S. M. Sa Mqjeste, His or Her Maj- 
esty. 

S. M. B. S. M. Britannique, His 
Britannic Majesty. 

S. M. C. S. M. Gatholique, His Ca- 
tholic Majesty. 

S. M. I. S. M. Imperiale, His Im- 
perial Majesty. 

S. M. T. C. S. M. Tres Ghretienne, 
His Most Christian Majesty. 

S. P. Saint-Pere, Holy Father. 

S. S. Sa Saintete, His Holiness. 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

According to established usage, the words of the French 
language are divided into nine classes. These are : 1. Nouns, 
2. Articles; 3. Adjectives; 4. Pronouns; 5. Verbs; 6. Adverbs; 
7. Prepositions ; 8. Conjunctions ; 9. Interjections. 



CHAPTER I. 



Nouns are simply the names of persons or things. 

Ex. Pierre, Peter ; Londres, London ; Autriche, Austria ; 
terre, earth ; soleil, sun ; vertu, virtue. 

Proper Nouns belong to one man or one object only, and 
hence their name. 

Ex. Cesar, Caesar; Louis, Lewis ; Russie, Russia ; Vesuve, 
Vesuvius. 

Common Nouns are the names which are common to a whole 
class of objects. 

Ex. homme, man; arbre, tree; oiseau, bird. 



4:0 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Collective Nouns are the names which are common to a cer- 
tain number, a collection of persons or things, and hence under 
a singular form represent a plural meaning. 

Ex. armee t army ; Joule, crowd ; quanlite, quantity ; moilie, 
half. 

There are two important points to be considered in connec- 
tion with nouns: Gender and Number. 

GENDER OF NOl'XS. 

French nouns bave two genders Masculine and Feminine. 
As there is no Neuter in French, all English nouns of that 
gender must be it. Fren h either masculine or feminine. 

We ascertain the gender of a French word : 1. by its signi- 
.. and -. by its termination. 

,\<; TO BH NIFICATIOK. 

1. Mate l\ e, are the nouns which designate male beingB, and 
Buch as we are accustomed to consider as male. 

Ex. komme, man ; /ton, lion ; Renins, 

rnate female beings, 
and Bach m we art I to consider as female. 

. 
ins which rapresenl qualities belonging to men and to 
women, change their gender accordingly. 

Ex. /'.'/•//"/'/-, m., the foreigner; ntrangire, f., the foreign 
lady. 

i. Masculine, are the names of days, months and seasons; 
of tre - meaa- 

imhers and fractions, weight 

. ; (March; le printempt, spring; 

iron; U granit, granite; It Fra 
, the meti ; U quart, the fourth ; A 
the hundredth. 



NOUNS. 41 

One tree, yev.se, an oak, is feminine ; and a few shrubs, as epine, 
thorn ; rcmce, brier , vigne, vine, etc. 

Collective numbers also are feminine, as la douzccine, dozen ; la moi- 
tie, half. 

5. Masculine, are tne names of mountains and winds, and 
those of countries and rivers which do not end in e mute. 

Ex. le Caucase, Caucasus ; le Vesuve, Vesuvius ; le JVord, 
North wind ; le Piemont, Piedmont ; le Danemarck, Denmark ; 
le Tage, Tagus. 

Except the names of mountains used only in the plural, as les AU 
pes and les Pyrenees ; and of winds the following : la arise, breeze ; la 
bise, N. E. wind ; la tramontane, N. wind. 

The names of rivers ending in e mute are masculine or feminine, 
according to their derivation ; hence le RMne, from Khodanus ; and 
la Seine, from Sequana. 

6. Feminine, are the names of virtues, qualities and festivals. 
Ex. la vertu, virtue ; la bonte, goodness ; la haine, hatred ; la 

Saint- Jean, St. John's day. 

Except Noel, Christmas ; and Pdques, when it means Easter Sun- 
day ; and courage and merite, all of which are masculine. 

7. The gender of Compound Nouns depends upon the na- 
ture of their composition, which will be explained hereafter. 
No general rule, applying to all cases, can here be given, 
though it may be learned that when they contain a noun and 
an adjective, the noun determines the gender. 

Ex. eau-forte, aqua-fortis, fem. because eau is feminine ; es- 
prit-fort, great wit, masc. because esprit is masculine. 

And when they consist of two nouns, the principal noun 
determines the gender. 

Ex. arc-en-ciel, rainbow, masc. ; arriere-boutique, back shop, 
fem. 



J2 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



GENDER OF NOUNS ACCORDING TO THEIR TERMINATION. 

The rules which determine the Gender of Nouns by their 
form, depend maiuly upon the fact that these nouns are gen- 
erally derived from the Latin, and retain the gender which tliey 
had in that language. Hence we obtain the following rules, 
which are the most important : 

1. Feminine, are nouns end- except the Masculines : 
in<r in 



eton, as gueoum. 

Hon, as utt. ntion. 
- 

Iflasion. 

i uion. 



bastion and scion. 



rUionti, Christianity. 



'. aside ; a rr&t, 

| eomte, oounty : •'.''. 

pie; predpitS, ji 



- f i. . ur, (avor. 



resolution: 

suinin.T; 

precipitate ; 

committee ; ctiti, Bide , 

traitS, treaty ; tin', tea. 

b"n/t> ur, happiness ; chaw, 

chorus; caur, lu'svrt ; dSnomina- 

lishonor ; rfiri- 

nii/r. divisor; <'>jnat, ur, equator; 

■ : honm ur, honor ; intS- 

labor; maUmur, 

misfortune; 

tr», tears ; rigutar 
■f, ur. 
blasoo ; buton, 
buzzard gaaon, turf; 

lyard ; poiton, 
poison : oiaon, gosling; titon, fire- 
brand ; pinpon, tugon, <-tc 
\fascuIno arc D0QD8 « -n ling 10 

n i ud. 
ron, as baron, 
out, as rajout, stew. 



■ . and 
bJon. 



NOUNS. 



43 



ment, as jugement, judgment. 

au, an vuyau, pipe, (except eau, water, and peau, skin). 

in, as bassin, basin, (except fin, end, and main, hand). 

et, as brevet, (except foret, forest). 

ot, as gigot, leg, (except dot, dowry). 

3. Nouns ending in mute e may be considered as feminine. 
Hence, the names of most countries and all cities are of this 
gender, when ending in mute e. 

Ex. la France, France ; la Syrie, Syria ; la Rochelle. 

Some names of countries ending in mute e aro masculine : U Ben- 
gale, Bengal ; le Mexique, Mexico ; Ic Peloponese. 

But among the nouns ending in mute e, many classes are 
masculine, of which we mention here the most numerous and 
important only. 

except the Feminines : 



Masculine, are those end- 
ing in 

!, slavery. 



{cage, cage ; image ; nage, swim- 
ming ; page, page of a book ; 
plage, beach ; rage, rage. 

alarme ; ame, soul ; amertume, 



ire, as > 



itre, chapter. 



arme, weapon ; cou- 
tume, custom ; creme, cream ; ecu- 
me, foam ; enigme, epigramme ; es- 
time, esteem ; ferme, farm ; flam- 
me, flame ; forme ; gomme, gum ; 
lame, blade ; larme, tear ; lime, 
file ; maxime ; plume, pen ; pom- 
me, apple ; rame, oar ; reforme ; 
rime, rhyme ; somme, sum ; victi- 
me ; cime, summit ; dime, tithe ; 
enclume, anvil ; escrime, fencing ; 
gamme, gamut ; prime, premium ; 
frame, web, and a few others 
rarely used. 
(* chartre, constitution ; fenetre, 
i window ; guetre, gaiter ; liuitre, 
Ure, letter ; montre, 



44 



ON THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 



f watch; piastre; potttre, beam, 
J rencontre, meeting ; titre, pane • 
iepitre, epistle; mitre, and a few 
[ others. 

affaire : aire, area ; claire, re- 
fined ashes ; glaire, slime ; gram- 
maire ; haire, hair-cloth ; j"</>i- 
paire, pair, and all names 

of plants wilding in aire. 

decrottoire, shoe-brash; Seritoure, 
inkstand; histoire, history. 
t"ir, , victory. 

avari 
delight : epia . Bpice ; immondice, 

filth ; j . lists ; 

. militia ; imtir, ; 
offto . pantry . 
firetlin vnrix. 

cambrio; 

j office : petti . plague ; pitt . track ; 
jacket 

. Cl IJ ; hilr, 

bile"; etoile, star; file, row; hu&e, 
pile; A <//<-, 
linen; futfe, tile; 

sail. 

l.aru- 

dStatU, 
Jbreakii 
bnncle ; i • ./. .'■ '. . manacles 
Bcra]><-. 

- 

- ' Ghreekor Latin; 

rith the names of In 

i ' 



tre, as chapltre, chapter. 



dirt, as statuaire, sculptor. 



toire, bb purgatoire, purgatory. 



ire, as i 



dt', as artiste, artiste. 



i 



NOUNS. 



45 



The following list of nouns ending in mute e, which are 
masculine for various reasons not mentioned above, is inserted 
here mainly for purposes of reference ; other words which 
are purely technical or of rare occurence, have been omitted. 



abaque 


abacus 


are (and com 


{unity in the new 
\ system of measure 


accessoire 


accessory 


pounds) 


acide 


acid 


aromate 


aromatic 


acre 


acre 


ascaride 


ascarides 


acrosticlie 


acrostic 


aspbalte 


asphalt 


acte 


act 


aspre 


asper 


adininicule 


slight proof 


asterisque 


asterisk 


adverbe 


adverb 


astragale 


astragal 


aigle 


eagle 


astrolabe 


astrolabe 


aise 


ease 


atbenee 


athenceum 


albatre 


alabaster 


augure 


augury 


allege 


ligMer 


automate 


automaton 


alveole 


j a cell in a honey 
\ comb 


- axe 


axis, axle-tree 


babeurre 


buttermilk 


ambages pi. 


ambages 


bagne 


bagnio 


ambe 


(two together) 


barbe 


a Barbary horse 


amble 


amble 


barde 


slice of bacon 


ainbre 


amber 


barege 


barege 


amiante 


amianthus 


basalte 


basalt 


amulette 


amulet 


becarre 


{ natural 

\ (in music) 


aualectes pi. 


analects 


andante 


andante 


bejaune 


booby 


androgyne 


androgyne 


berce 


robin redbreast 


angle (and com- 


\ angle 


beurre 


butter 


pounds) 


bievre 


beaver 


animalcule 


animalcule 


bogue 


boga 


antidote 


antidote 


Bospnore 


Bosphorus 


antipode 


antipode 


bouge 


a small room 


apkelie 


aphelion 


branle 


jogging 


apocalypse 


apocalypse 


cable 


cable 


apogee 


apogeon 


cadavre 


corpse 


apograpbe 


apographum 


cadre 


frame 


apologue 


apologue 


caducee 


mercury's wand 


arbre 


tree 


calibre 


bore, size, sort 



4G 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



caique 


counter drawing 


code 


code 


camee 


cameo 


codicille 


codicU 


camphre 


camphire 


coffre 


chest 


cancre 


crab-fish 


college 


college 


candelabre 


ehandi V r 


colloque 


colloquy 


cantique 


canticle 


collyre 


colly Hum 


capitole 


capital 


colosse 


colossus 


capitule 


capitule 


colyst'e 


coliseum 


capre 


prirntr, r 


comble 


top 


capricoxne 


Capricorn 


comestible 


eatables 


caroube 


■ cordb bean 


commerce 


com mi rre 


carougo 


commingo 


coarse mortar 


carpe 




compte 


bill, account 


carosse 




oompnlsolre 


ant 


cartouche 


scroll 


oondliabale 


nticte 




h hm t 


oonclaye 


eonel 


catafalque 


i'qne 


oonoombre 


cucumber 


catalogue 




c6ne 




catarrhs 


■ rrh 


congre 


conger 


caostiqae 


ca 


eonte 


tale 


I'll- 


taph 


oontr&le 


control 


earne 


rin'j i 


eonventicnle 


nticte 


dial." 




eorspuscule 


rorp'iscitle 


chamliranlo 






ft tin >ir 


chancre 




c. «ry | 


eoryp 






oothurne 


bo ski il 


chaovre 




OOU '.'■ 




chevrefetdlle 




couple 




rliilTr.- 


(figure) 


dboire 






rra/i 


cidro 


riil. r 




skull 




' > /i. r 


cravate 


rroot 


dgare 




erdpe 




cimcterre 


tri, 


BrepUBCUlfl 


tuOigkt 


dmeti&re 


'cry 


crible 






rim 




cube 


dppe 




eulte 


h ip 


cirque 








cloaqoe 




eylindre 


cyl ' 


cocbe 


1 


ti a Hon 



tnd 





JSTOUNS. 


4 


decalogue 


decalogue 


escompte 


discount 


decombres pi. 


rubbish 


espace 


space 


decompte 


discount 


eupborbe 


euphorbium 


dedale 


labyrinth 


exemple 


example 


delice sing. 


delight 


exergue 


exergue 


delire 


delirium 


exode 


exodus 


deluge 


deluge 


exorde 


exordium 


deruerite 


demerit 


fascicule 


fascicle 


denticule 


denticles 


faite 


top 


derriere 


back 


feurre 


cJmff 


desordre 


disorder 


fiacre 


hack 


dialectp 


dialect 


fifre 


fife 


diocese 


diocese 


filigrane 


filigree 


disque 


disk 


finale (in music) finale 


dissyllabe 


dissyllable 


flasque ( of 


> flask 


distique 


distich 


cannon) 


dithyrainbe 


dithyrambus 


fleuve 


large river 


divideude 


dividend 


fluide 


fluid 


divorce 


divorce 


foie 


liver 


dogue 


bull-dog 


follicule (in an-} #i7I)Vi--#7 „ 


domaine 


domain 


atomy) 


r J UW0VU/1/& 


double 


double 


fonticule 


fonticulus 


doute 


doubt 


foudre • 


large tun 


ecbange • 


exchange 


genie 


genius 


ellebore 


hellebore 


genievre 


gin 


eloge 


encomium 


genre 


gender 


elysee 


elysium 


gingembre 


ginger 


emetique 


emetic 


girofle 


cloves 


empire 


empire 


gite 


lodging 


empire'e 


empyrean 


givre 


hoar-frost 


encombre 


encumbrance 


glaive 


sword 


ensemble 


whole 


globe 


globe 


ephemerides 


ephemerides 


globule 


globtde 


epilogue 


epilogue 


goberge 


a sort of eodfis't 


episode 


episode 


golfe 


gulf 


equilibre 


equilibrium 


gone 


a sort of worm 


equinoxe 


equinox 


goufire 


abyss 


erysipele 


erysipelas 


grabuge 


squabble 


esclandre 


uproar 


grade 


degree 


eBclavage 


slavery 


greffe 


register's office 



47 



43 



ON THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 



gnmoire 


conjuror's book 


lexique 


lexicon 


groupe 


group 


libelle 


libel 


guide 


guide, director 


liege 


cork 


gueule 


gules in heraldry lievre 


hare 


gymnase 


gymnasium 


limbe 


limb (edge) 


gyneceo 


gyncecium 


linge 


linen, clothes 


hale 


suubur/iixg 


liquide 


liquid 


hiivre 


haven 


litigo 


litigation 


hecatombe 


hecatomb 


livre 


book 


heliotrope 


turnsol 


lobe 


lobe 


hemisphere 


h> misphere 


lobule 


lobule 


ln'mi.-ticho 


licmiMich 


logogryphe 


logography 


hieroglypha 


hit /•">/! yphic 


lombes 




hombre 


ombt r 


Lnuvn- 


palace 


horoscope 


horot 


lucre 


lucre 


hymenee 


wedlock 


luxe 


lu.rury 


liyiiuii- 


hym \v •,• 


tyoewn 


bypoooodrc 


hypochondria* 


madrepore 


madrepora 


iambe 




malgre 


li an 


immeuble 


real 


HialaiM' 


wneasinem 


in.-.ii.li,- 


eonflagration 


Iiialic-hr 


handle 


indiculo 


slight indication 


man ige 


riding-school 


hilu~uirr8 


fnfutory Worms 


mfinea 








manipnle 


mandpU 




•gnia 


manque 


leant 


tanerUgne 


interline 


marbre 


marble 


Intermeda 


intt i 


mart \ ti> 


martyrdom 


JDttTI. 


intern ign 


martj rologe 


martyrologff 


inti-rvulle 


intt red 


mannnn 


mask 






acre 


ma.* 


Jade 


jade 


■MMMoMe 


mausoktnm 


jaspo 


jasper 


up' a nilro 


maiider 


Je&ne 


fiut 


nn'cpinpte 


in it n rlcon ing 


kiopque 


kiosk 


Hi'' lunge 


mixture 


lul>\ rinthe 


iabyr 


membra 


member, limb 




meadsKng detkee mfcnoiw 


bill 


laqoe 


China varnish 


nn'iiisque 


meniscus 




offing 


mensonge 


■ xf<>ry) 


learn 


hurt 


mercure 


mercury 


K-viuquo 


Uciticus 


merle 


b'ackbird 



merite 


merit 


< U IN Q. 

opuscule 


small composition 


mesaise 


distress 


orbe 


orb 


metailo'ide 


metalloid 


ordre 


order 


ineteore 


meteor 


organ 


organ 


meuble 


piece of furniture orgue, when 


) organ, an instru- 
\ ment 


nolle 


mile 


singular 


mode 


mood 


ovale 


oval 


modele 


model 


ove 


onolo 


module 


module 


oxyde 


oxyd 


mole 


pier 


pact 


pact 


monde 


world 


pampre 


leafy nine branch 


monocorde 


monochord 


panache 


bunch of feathers 


monologue 


monologue 


panegyrique 


panegyric 


monopole 


monopoly 


pantographe 


pantograph 


monosyllabe 


monosyllables 


paque 


easier 


monticule 


hillock 


paradoxe 


paradox 


Morne 


hillock 


paragraphe 


paragraph 


nioufle 


pulley 


parallele 


comparison 


moule 


mould 


parafe or paxaphe flourishinsinging 


mufle 


muzzle 


parapluie 


umbrella 


murmure 


murmw 


parjure 


perjury 


musee 


museum 


parterre 


Spit {in a theatre) 


niyrthe 


myrtle 


( flower garden 


naplite 


naphtha 


participe 


participle 


narcisse 


daffodil 


parachute 


parachute 


navire 


ship 


patrimoine 


patrimony 


necrologe 


{ a register vf the 
\ dead 


pavie 
pecule 


nectarine 
peculium 


negoce 


trade 


pedicule 


pedicle 


nimbe 


glory, in painting pedoncule 


the principal stern 


nombre 


number, quantity peigne 


comb 


obelisque 


obelisk 


penates 


penates 


038opbage 


oesophagus 


pendule 


pendulum 


ceuvre 


musical work 


pene 


bolt of a lock 


olympe 


olympus 


pentacorde 


pentechord 


ombre 


a game of cards 


pentateuque 


pentateuch 


omoplate 


omoplate 


pericarde 


pericardium 


ongle 


nail 


pericarpe 


pericarpium 


opercule 


operculum 


pericrane 


pericranium 


opprobre 


disgrace 


perigee 


perigee 



50 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



perihelie 

periode 

peritoiue 

perpendicule 

personne 

petale 

petiole 

petrole 

peuple 

pbalene 

phare 

pht'nomrne 

pll<M|lll> 

phosphora 

I 

pique 

plyolne 

planisphere 

pl6biscfte 

plelge 

poflo 

l*>il«- 

pole 

polype 

polypode 

polyeyllabe 

ponche 

poarahe 

pore 

parphyre 

Jtort.'t'rMillc 

portiqae 
poaoe 

pourpre 

]>r.':imltule 

: 

preohe 



perihelium 

tJu highest j)itch 

peritonaeum 

perpendicvbum 

p tal 
l>. Hole 
petiroU '(in 

Ughth 



phi re 

it u in 

1" I'l" r 

dium 

thumb 

i ' 

i ing 






prelude 

prestige 

prfitexte 

principe 

privilege 

prodigue 

prologue 

prone 

propylee 

protocols 

proverbe 

prytanee 

pygmee 

pylore 

qoadrige 

quadrille 

quaterne 

quinoonce 

rable 

rale 

reobange 

regale 
relfiche 

r.iiii'di' 

remise 

renne 

repere 

reproehe 

rotable 

r.'ticuli- 

reve 
reverbere 

rhombo 
ridicule 
rieble 

risque 
rite 



prelude 

prestige 

pr< text 

principle 

privilege 

prodigy 

prologue 

short sermon 

propylaswm 

protocol 

proverb 

prytanemm 

pylorus 
quadriga 

g me <tt rards 

rue 
unx 

/ re niton 

i; < I nl ns 

■fi<>n 
/•■ mi ill/ 

mark 
r, proaeh 

i'ieee 
reetteula 
dream 

Li ht i rn 

ridiouk 

gram 
risk 

rite 



NOUNS. 



51 



r61e 


roll 


stockfiche 


dried codfish 


rosace 


hollyJiock 


store 


small blinds 


rosage 


rose-bay 


stygmate 


stigma 


rouable 


rake for an oven 


, stylobate 


stylobatum 


rouble 


Russian coin 


subterfuge 


subterfuge 


sable 


sable 


subside 


subsidy 


sabre 


sabre 


Sucre 


sugar 


sacerdoce 


sacerdoce 


symbole 


symbol 


sacre 


consecration 


synod e 


synod 


sacrilege 


sacrilege 


tarse 


tarsus 


sarigue 


oposum 


temple 


temple 


scandale 


public offence 


tentacule 


tentacle 


scarabee 


searabceus 


terne 


terne 


scolie 


scolium 


teste 


text 


scrupule 


scruple 


thyrse 


thyrsus 


seigle 


rye 


timbre 


stamp 


sepulcre 


sepulchre 


tintamarre 


great noist 


sexe 


sex 


tonnerre 


thunder 


sexte 


sextus 


topique 


topic 


signe 


sign 


torse 


trunk of a etatue 


silence 


silence 


toxique 


poison 


sille 


sillus 


trapeze 


trapezium 


simple 


medicinal herb 


trefle 


trefoil 


simulacre 


simulacre 


triomphe 


triumph 


singe 


ape 


trisyllabe 


trisyllable 


site 


site 


trocbisque 


pill 


socque 


overshoe, sandal 


trochee 


trochee 


solde 


balance of abill 


troene 


privet 


soliloque 


soliloquy 


troglodite 


wren 


songe 


dream 


trombone 


trombone 


souffle 


breath 


trone 


throne 


soufre 


sulphur 


trope 


trope 


sourire 


smile 


tropb.ee 


trophy 


siadllle 


spadille 


tropique 


tropic 


spJcifique 


specific 


trouble 


trouble 


spondee 


spondee 


tube 


tube 


squelette 


skeleton 


tubercule 


tubsrcle 


squirre 


scirrhus 


tumulte 


tumult 


etade 


stadium 


type (and comp 


■) type 


slalle 


stall 


ulcere 


ulcer 



52 



OK THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



vague 


vague 


vestige 


track 


vase 


vase, rassd 


viatique 


viaticum 




iballud, a short 
\ comedy 


vide 


vacuum 


vaudeville 


ignoble 


vineyard 


vehicule 


vehicle 


vinaigre 


vinegar 


ventricals 


ventricle 


violoncello 


violoncello 


vepre 


dusk, < 


viscere 


intestines 


verbe 


verb 


vivres pi. 


victual* 


vennicelle 


n rtniedU 


vote 




verre 


giau 


zMe 


zeal 


vertige 


dizziness 


zodiaque 


zodiac 


vestibule 


entry 







NUMBER OF NOUNS. 

French nouns have two numbers, singular and plural, accord- 
ing as they designate one object only or a number of them. 
This applies only to common nouns, as proper names are the 
exclusive property of one person or one object, and cannot 
hence be applied to many, as long as they are used as genuine 

proper nam'-. 

The ringular ia given by the form of the noun itself. 
The plural ia invariably made by the addition of », for even 
when plnraU are found to end in « or x, it must be borne in 
mind, that a is but a combination of d and », and x of c and *. 
The manner of forming the plural of nouns ia Bubject to the 
ing rules : 
l. All nouns not ending in ». - or *, add a anal t. 

tabU, p. tool " 7 > P« /" slls > 

gun ; a, ni /. p. nid*\ neat 

■_•. Nouns ending in a, a or x remain unchanged, as they end 
already in . 

Ex. a. fit*, p. fiky s. son ; a. m -. p no, nose ; a croiz, p croc* 

cross j . p. ra/ivrJs. remorse. 

tiding in on (eon), ra (o»u), and some in <m, add 

u final x. 

Ex. a. (tau, p. Hams, vice; a. 6a/eau, p. bateaux, boat; 



N0U1TS. 53 

s. feu, p. feux, fire ; s. voeu, p. vceux, vow ; s. genou, p. genoux, 
knee. 

4. Nouns ending in al, and some in ail, change these syl- 
lables into aux. 

Ex. s. mal, p. maux, evil; s. ckeval, p. chevaux, horse; s. CO' 
rail, p. coraux, coral ; s. travail, p. travaux, labor. 

The following nouns ending in aZ make the plural by adding s, and 
not by changing al into aux : 

Bal, ball ; col, callosity ; car naval, carnival ; ceremonial ; chacal, 
jackal ; narval, narwal ; regal, treat ; sandal, sandalwood, and a few 
names of animals of rare occurrence. Formerly it was the fashion to 
make the plural of nouns ending in ant or ent by omitting the letter 
t, so as to make them end in ans or ens; this is not done now-a-days. 

Ex. s. enfant, p. enfants, children ; s. serpent, p. serpents, serpents. 

5. Some nouns have an irregular plural, the most important 
of which are the following : 

Aieul, grandfather, becomes a'ieux, when it means ancestors ; 
but aieuls, when is means grandfathers. 

Ail, garlic, in botanical language, makes ails; in ordinary life, 
aulx, though gousses (Tail, cloves of garlic, is generally sub- 
stituted. 

Betail, cattle, becomes bediaux. 

del, sky or heaven, becomes cieux ; but when ft is used fig- 
uratively, it makes dels. 

Ex. dels-de-lit, top of bedsteads ; dels de tableau, skies in a 
painting. 

CEil, eye, becomes yeux in its primary meaning; but it 
makes ceils when used figuratively. 

Ex. ceils-de-bceuf, bull's eyes (in architecture) ; ceils-de-chat, 
cat's eyes (in mineralogy.) 

Except in yeux dupain, yeux du frontage, the open spaces in bread 
and cheese ; and yeux du bouillon, the round spots of fat swimming 
on broth. 

Universel, universal (in logic) becomes universaux. 



54 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

oise. 

Children. Parents. Friends. Animals. Enemies. Virtues. Vi- 
ces. Years. Days. Evils. Misfortunes. Horses. Corals. Vicis- 
situdes. Horrors. Kings. Queens. Crosses. Vases. Noses. Eyes* 
Months. Nephews. Nieces. Brothers. S.ms. Daughters. Col- 
onels. Nanvals. Nails. Screws. Hammers. Arsenals. Capitals. 
Residences. Villages. Altars. Partridges. Avowals. Cabbages. 
Knees. Hands. Heads. Canals. Laws. Fires. Waters. Troubles. 
Voices. Cattle. Skies. Horns. Feet, Pebbles. 



CHAPTBB II. 



ARIICLES. 

Articles arc words place. 1 before nouns or other parts of 
for the purpose of defining their mean- 
ing in various ways. 

language baa two articles: the Definite th* and 
the Iu.f finite i or on. 

The French language htm three articles. 

The Definite <■ . ■ • . the. 

The [nd( ■ ting to -/. 

The Partiti rhich baa no corresponding form in 

English. 

1. The /' '. bas the following three forms : 

/.-, before maacuJ beginning with ■ consonant or 

aspirated /i. 

Kx. It atari, the bnaband; U hiroa, the hero. 

feminine nouns beginning with a consonant or 
aspirated h. 

Ex. • wife ; la h tint, the hatred. 

/.*, before masculine <>r feminine nouna beginning with a 

K\. r< in--, the friend; fife, the island; Thomme, the man; 
wr, the bistorj. 



ARTICLES. 



55 



Its plural form is les before all nouns without distinction. 

Ex. les rois, the kings ; les amis, the friends ; les honneurs, 
the honors ; les reines, the queens ; les habitudes, the habits. 

It is declined, as all words are declined in French, by means 
of the preposition de (of), and d (to), but suffers certain con- 
tractions, which produce the following forms : 







SINGULAR. 










Masculine 


Feminine. 


Before vowels or h mute. 


Nominative 


U 


la- 




V 




Genitive. 


{de le) die 


de la 




del' 




Dative. 


(d le) au 


a la 




dV 




Accusative. 


U 


la 

PLURAL. 
For all Nouns. 
Nom. 


les 


V 








Gen. {de les) des 










Dat. {d les) 


aux 










Ace. 


les 







This gives, with a noun, the following forms : 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Masculine Noun. 
Nom. le roi, the king. les rois, the kings. 

Gen. du roi, of the king. des rois, of the kings. 

Dat. au roi, to the king. aux rois, to the kings. 

Ace. le roi, the king. les rois, the kings. 

Feminine Noun . 
Nom. la reine, the queen. les reines, the queens. 

Gen. de la reine, of the queen. des reines, of the queens. 
Dat. a la reine, to the queen. aux reines, to the queens. 

Ace. la reine, the queen. les reines, the queens. 

Masculine, beginning with a vowel. 
Nom. Vami, the friend. les amis, the friends. 

Gen. de Vami, of the friend. des amis, of the friends. 

Dat. a Vami, to the friend. aux amis, to the friends. 

Ace. Vami, the friend. lei amis, the friends. 



56 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. "** 

Feminine, beginning with a vowel. 
Nom. Tome, the soul. les times, the souls. 

Gen. de I'dme, of the soul. dea dim 8, of the Bonis. 

Dat. d I'dme, to the soul. a>i.r times, to the souls. 

Ace. I'dme, the soul. lea times, the souls. 

Masculine, beginning with mute h. 
Nom. Vh/xbit, the coat. its, the coats. 

Gen. d> Vhabit, of the coat. dea habits, of the coats. 

Dat. << llni'nt, to the ooat. rt'/.r habits, to the coats. 

Ace. I'/oibit. the ooat Km Ao&to, the coats. 

line, beginning with aspirated A. 

Nom. /< //<'/">. tin- hcn>. les hiros, the heroes. 

Gen. dta aJrot, of the hero. w, of the heroea 

l»;it. to the hero. o'/j - Wro», to the heroea 

Ace. V hint, the hero. /<■< /<•'/•<-.<. the heroes. 

2, Tbe / '• "' 'U Articlt baa the following tonus: 

Un before all maSCOline nouns. 

before all feminine nouns. 
It is declined bj means of the same preposition, thus: 

siv.n.u: 
iiiin-. Feminine. 

Nom. vn me 

Sen. {de un) dun (de unt) d'une 
Dai i MM) 4 MM 

It has DO plural, KM being the same as the numeral KM, one. 

iu'ISB. 

(ix-arn tin- rerb Atetr, to have.) 

We have the flowers of the garden ; you have the fruits of the 
onhaid. He has a daughter andason. We had the doctor in tho 
hense. They will have the friend of the brother, and we will have 
the nu of the Mend. The children of the ancle ami the paranui of 



Nom. 


Cesar, 


Andre, 


Gen. 


de Cesar, 


d 'Andre, 


Dat. 


d Cesar, 


d Andre, 


Ace. 


Cesar. 


Andre. 



AKTICLES. 57 

the enemy. To the king of the English, and to the emperor of the 
French. They had a book of the library. You shal. have the pies 
and the cakes. She had a bouquet. To the lover of the chase. The 
end of the action and the causes of the retreat. The value of the 
gold and of the silver of the country. They have had a speech in 
the church, and they had the ministers of the church in the building. 
The epistles of the friends to the man in the mask. The gifts of the 
ambassador to the empress. 1 1- hall have the money or the goods. 
The surgeons in the hospital, and the doctors at the hotel. The 
horses of the men, and the swords of the officers. To an aunt of 
the boys, and to an uncle of the girls. 

The declension of Proper Names is made by the preposi- 
tions only, without an article, in which case de elides its e be- 
fore vowels and mute /*. 

Anne, Londres, 

d'Anne, de Londres, 

d Anne, d Londres, 

Anne. Londres. 

Preposition and article must both be repeated before every 
noun which they qualify, and agree with it in gender and 
number. 

Ex. Le Jlls de Louis et d" 'Anne. L'histoire des Romains et 
des Grecs. Fidele au roi et a la reine. 

There is no Possessive Case in French. The noun so used 
in English must be placed after the noun on which it depends, 
in the genitive case. Paul's book thus becomes the book of 
Paul ; the brother's hat becomes the hat of the brother. 

Ex. le livre de Paul, Paul's book ; le chapeau du frere, the 
.rother's hat; le courage d'un heros, a hero's courage. 

Exercise. 
I have the letters of Voltaire to Frederick the Great. He had the 
philosopher in the palace of Potsdam. The letters to the king had a 
success. She had a sister's love for the friend of the brother. They 
had not the measures of the depth of the well. We have an attor- 
ney's autnority, and you have a lawyer's certificate. They would 
have had tn^ President's Message, but they had not the time, nor the 
3* 



58 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

apace in the journal. We have not the partridges of Europe. We 
had a plan of the city of London and a drawing of the towns of the 
district. To the friends of the negroes. We bad a storm during the 
night, and we shall have a rain in the day. The winds and the 
waves. You have the dedication to the wife of the author. The 
beginning of the history of the war of Independence. The queens 
of England and Scotland. To the master of workmen and appren- 
tices. The; had a horse and chaise. The address of the c omm a nder 
to the soldiers of the Empire. 

3. The Partitive <4 - that not the whole, bat 

only a part or a certain quantity is spoken of. The English ex- 
press this either by I n, of the article, as when wo 
Bay: [have bread, or by the oae of tome in affirmative and 
any in the interrog itive sentences, «. g. He has 
some bread. Have you any apples .' I bave not any friends. 

The partitive arti 

tbined with the definite article, 

and thus d :;i ^ : 

! \K. 

I ,111. Before vowels and h mute. 

(/- V 

, pain, torn - ""• cream ; dt /V 

laws; 

. vi- 
al 1 Nouns.) 

:ie pOtfr 

| and in Dtp 

Kv ,/ bad ad- 

It must in mind that a- the pari 

• with nouns, 



ARTICLES. 50 

the meaning of which precludes the idea of division. Some 
tea, means a portion of the whole quantity, and some friend*, 
a fraction of the whole number ; but when we say : I look for 
some house to suit me, we do not mean a portion of a house, 
and hence, here, some cannot be translated by the partitive 
article. 

Exercise. 

(Learn the verb Avoir interrogatively.) 

I have bread and water, and you shall have wine and cakes. Has 
he any friends in the city ? I had some pens and some ink, but I 
have not any paper. We shall have oil with the salad, and vinegar 
with the beets. Had you any ideas ? Has she the end of the list, and 
some hope of the return of the printer ? Meat and vegetables, coffee 
and tea, bread and butter. I have cream in the tea, and milk in the 
coffee. Have you no (not any) sugar ? I have had sugar, and she has 
had molasses. Friends and enemies, soldiers and citizens. Would 
you have a friend's advice, or an enemy's warning ? Have they any 
tragedies and comedies in the literature of the age ? To the friends 
of the monarch. "Have they had any apples ? They had an apple 
and some apricots, but they had not any peaches. I have pencils and 
crayons, but I have not any colors. 

When the verb is both interrogative and negative, the part- 
itive article resumes its full form, du, de la, de V and des. 
Ex. Wavez-vous pas des livres ? Have you not any books ? 

Exercise. 

(Learn the verb Avoir interrogatively and negatively.) 

We had some bread and cheese, but we had no wine and no meat. 
Had you any dinner or supper to-day ? I have some hope. We shall 
have some friends and some relations at the feast of St. John. Will 
you not have some guests at the house ? He shall have some plea- 
sures and some games, but we shall not have any guests. We had 
some rye, but we had no oats, affd now we shall have no baker's 
bread The porter's lodge, and the cry for workmen. He had tears 
and sighs. You shall have some rewards. Have they not had some 
difficulties with some soldiers 1 They have not had any medicine, 
because they had no phial. 



GO ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

CHAPTER III. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives express permanent or accidental qualities as at- 
tributed to nouns. As they do not designate a person or a 
thing, but only something thai belongs to them, they show de- 
pendence by always agreeing with the nonn which they quality, 
in gender and number. It matters not, whether they stand by 
this noun, a> in : the good man, the handsome woman, or are 
rated from it by other parts of the sentence, as in : The 
man <■(' the house is good ; the woman who was here is hand- 
some. They still agree in the aame way. 

t and past, when not used as parts <»f the 

. bnl employed t" qualifiy noons, are treated, in all res] 

I agree alto in gender and nnmber with their 
they are invariably placed after their noons. 

IATIOB <>K Til K KKMIMXK (>K AP.I E' ' I 1 V I.S. 

make their ftmimm invariably by adding a mute 
masculine. 
K\. m. .• : in. eharmantf f. cAarmoali, 

charming : t poftt, po- 

lite, ran harp. 

There are, however, besides this general method, certain 
other changes taking place in the process of forming the femi- 
nine, which lead t<> tin- following rul<-. \ 

l. Adjectives endis% in mnte t remain nnchanged in tho 
feminine, as it woold !■•• ••- add another mnte a 

Ex. n faithful; m. habile, t habile, skilful; 

ia. rir' . tOffttSf red. 

», and OR, bubidcb adding 
mute f, also double the final OOOtOUDt 





ADJECTIVES. 




Ex. m. eternel, 


f. Uemelle, 


eternal. 


muet, 


muette, 


mute. 


pareil, 


pareille, 


equal. 


ancien, 


ancienne, 


ancient. 


bon, 


bonne, 


good. 



CI 



The following Adjectives, ending in et, also take mute e, but instead 
of doubling the final consonant, they place a grave accent over the e 
that precedes the t. 



. complet, 


f. complete. 


m. inquiet, 


f. inquiete. 


concret, 


concrete. 


incornplet, 


incomplete. 


discret, 


discrete. 


replet, 


replete. 


indiscret, 


indiscrete. 


secret, 


secrete. 



3. Adjectives ending in er, besides adding mute e, place a 
grave accent over the e preceding r. 



m. fier, 
singulier, 



f. fiere, 



proud, 
singular. 



Ex. m. neuf, f. neuve, new. 
bref, breve, brief. 



4. Adjectives ending in / and or, besides adding mute e, 
change their final letters into v and s. 

m. Tieureux, f. fieureuse, happy. 
jaloux, jalouse, jealous. 

The following Adjectives ending in x, change it differently in the 
feminine : 
Ex. m. doux, f. douce, sweet. m. prefix, f. prefixe, prefixed. 
faux, fausse, false. ronx, rousse, reddish. 

5. The following Adjectives, besides adding mute e, double 
the final consonant, without belonging to the class mentioned 
under 2 : 



m. bas, f. basse, low. 

bellot, bellotte, pretty. 

gras, grasse, fat. 

las, lasse, weary. 

epais, epaisse, thick. 

expres, expresse, express. 

gros, grosse, big. 



m. sot, 
nul, 



f. sotte, foolish. 

nulle, null. 

gentille, nice. 

paysan, paysanne, peasant. 

profes, professe, professed. 

vieillot, vieillotte, oldish 



62 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Exekci.se. 
(Learn the verb Etre, to be.) 
lam prudent ami she is indiscreet. We shall be polite but coM 
to the gentleman of the house. She was angry and we were hupar 
ti.nt. He will be respected, but Bhe will be hated. Mary's friend lias 
whims: Bhe is pretty well dresBed, but she is not amiable. They will 
at. We were content with the brother's account of the story. 
He had excellent recommendations and letter- from the great men of 
the country. .at and Mary's ribbons are silk. He is the 

minister of an Episcopal church in the pretty village of the vail -y. 
The i high and the rivers are rapid, but the houa • 

low and dark and the men are not healthy. ! children aro 

young and pretty; Bhe has a i and her month is large. 

1 1 have not any money. He has singular habits 
and she is Dot proud of the husband. Rome is an ancient city and 
banco autiful churches. The wounds of the officer were 

mortal, and the (ever of the child is di atous of the 

friend of the husband, and the sisters are ashamed she has had a 
new robe, ■ short l< h r, an I ai pondence. 

0. \ j in ear make their feminine by changing 

r into v, when they are derived from the participle present of 

I 

• 

',/-. tO lie ; 

pt the f.-ll'.v. 
in. i e nch a n ti n g. 

p,;-;,, BbafuL 

mttng. 

make the feminine by changing the last 

! oding in tor. 

protecdng. 
creative, 
otlng, 

make the feminine regularly, when they are derived 
from the Latin oompara! 



ADJECTIVES. 



63 



m. majeur, 
mineur, 
meilUur, 
superieur, 
anterieur, 
inferieur, 



f. majeure, 
■min cure, 
meilleure, 
superieure, 
anterieure, 
inferieur 'e, 



of age. 

under age. 

better. 

superior. 

anterior. 

inferior. 



f I. The following Adjectives form their feminine irregularly : 



m. blanc, f. blanche, 



franc, 

sec, 

frais, 

public, 

caduc, 

ture, 

grec, 

benin, 



franche, 

seche, 

fraiche, 



oblongue, oblong. 



coite, 
favorite, 



quiet, 
favorite. 



turque, 
grecque, 



white. m. long, f. longue, long, 

frank. 

dry. 

fresh. 

public. 

frail. 

Turkish. 

Greek. 

benign. 

malignant 



oblong, 
coi, 

favori, 
muscat, 
jumeau, 
tiers, 
tors, 
traitre, 



muscade, muscat. 



jumelle, 
tierce, 
torse, 



twin, 
third, 
twisted. 



traitresse, treacherous. 



8. Adjectives ending in u place a diaeresis over the mute 
which they add to preserve the sound of u. 



Ex. 



m. aigu, 
contigu, 



f. aigue, 
contigue, 



sharp, 
contiguous. 



Several adjectives have no feminine. 
Ex. dispos, nimble ; fat, foppish. 

The following Adjectives have two forms for the masculine ; 
the first, ending in a vowel (except vieux) is used before nouns 
beginning with a consonant or aspirated h ; the second, end- 
ing in I, before nouns beginning with a vowel or mute A. The 
feminine is made from the latter, by adding mute e and doubling 
the final consonant. 



SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 


m. beau and bel, 


f. belle, 


m. beaux, 


f. belles, handsome. 


fou and/o£, 


folle, 


fous, 


folles, mad. 


mou and mol, 


molle, 


mous, 


molles, soft. 


nouveau and nouvel, 


nouvelle, 


nouveaux, 


nouvelles, new. 


vieux and vieil, 


vieitte, 


vieux, 


vieilles, old. 



6± ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

ExKRCISB. 

The sister is talkative, but the brothers are silent, and two cousins 
are mute. She has been an enchanting beauty, but now she is ugly. 
The pen is spoiled, and the ink is thick ; the letter is unlucky. Have 
you any ink ? I have some ink, and it is better. The old woman is 
industrious, but the sister is too talkative. She is of age, but the 
brothers are under age. The handsome man and the handsome 
woman were husband and wife; they have no children. A superior 
education and an interior soul. The better history is in the library of 
the mad man. A Dew friend is better than an old enemy. The new 
and beautiful dresses of the young la. lies are in the big box. Bhe has 
white hands and fresh cheeks, with blue eyes and a benign expression. 
She is a malignant woman and very revengeful. A Turkish custom 
and a Sleek custom are different things. The while robe is not dry. 
The Rnglish tongue i> discreet* and the French tongue a favorite in 
rl 1. 

rOBMATZOB <>K Tin: PLUBAX OF A.DJE0TOYB8. 

their plural generally according to the same 

roles as mums, viz. by adding i to the singular, x when they 

rod by changing "/ into aux. 

Ex. a '//•'//</, p. <. p. beaux, handsome , 

• princip m r, principal. 

. bowever, makes its plural bleus, and tout changes into 

The followii ling in "/, do nol change it into 

. | i : 

Mai, fatalj final, frugal 
il, initial, n itinal, early rising; nasal, naval; 

pascal, paschal | pinalf '' ',wil. 

Anotfa tiding in <//, from tlu-ir signiic 

iral form for the masculine. 
Ex. a\ '. mental, labial, lingual, palatal, todiacal t 

and paroitsial, parochial. 

Exsroxbc 

.'-a the v. rb / sly.) 

The dress i.- gTSl n, t'.ie trimming* are reddish, and the belt id blue; 



ADJECTIVES. 6» 

the gloves also are blue. The hands are small, but the feet are colos- 
sal. The true opinions of the members of the Senate were not the 
principal motives. The marital rights of the general are secured, 
and the final action will be seen. They had the special orders of the 
general, but we had the emperor's general orders. We had some 
pleasure from the amusements of the festival, but the special objects 
were not secured. The native land to the children of the soil. They 
have the accounts of the naval operations of Jean Bart and Ruyter. 
The four cardinal points are : North, South, East and West. Were 
they not the cardinals of the holy college ? Ney was the commander 
of the army during the fatal days of the war of Russia. The Jesuits 
have a mental reservation. This was a grievous insult to the friend 
of the host ; it will be an eternal disgrace. His immortal renown is 
superior to the fame of Caesar. 

FORMATION OF COMPARATIVE DEGREES. 

The meaning of adjectives may be expressed in different 
ways, according to the result of a comparison between various 
persons or objects, to whom the same qualities are attributed. 

1. If the result of the comparison is the superiority of one 
over others, this is called the Comparative of Superiority, 
which is formed by placing plus (more) before the adjective. 

Ex. fin, comp. plus fin, finer ; magnifique, comp. plus ma- 
gnifique, more magnificent. 

2. If the result is the inferiority of one to others, this is 
called the Comparative of Inferiority, which is formed by pla- 
cing moins (less) before the adjective. 

Ex. beau, comp. moins beau, less handsome. 

3. If the result of the comparison is the equality of one to 
the other, this is called the Comparative of Equality, which is 
formed by placing aussi before the adjective in affirmative, and 
si in negative sentences. 

Ex. grand, comp. aussi grand, as tall ; pas si grand que vous, 
not as tall as you. 

The English conjunctions than and as, which serve to connect 
the two terms of the comparison, are translated alike by que. 

Ex. plus petit que le frere, smaller than the brother; moins 



06 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

brlle que la soeur, \ess handsome than the sister; aussi savant 

que le pcre, as learned as the lather. 

The following adjectives have irregular comparative forms : 
Bon, good, makes meilleur, better; mauvais, bad, makes 

pire, worse ; and petit, small, makes moindre, smaller. 

Exekcise. 

She wafl richi-r than tlie sister, but the cousins are richer than all 

th" membera of the family. I am less familiar with the details of the 

v. She is a better friend than the brother, but he is more oaa- 

i than she. The apples ar^ nol the pears, but the 

plum- r than the other fruits. The father is as kind as 

:i. bnt he is aot as polite as Charles. Lucy is taller and more 

er and sweeter . Who is less imperious 

than the ruler of the country, and who is prouder than the son of the 

tion '. The garden 

'nl the bouse is taller than the garden. Ho 

1 iya will be longer and hottet 

summer, hut in tin- winter they are shorter and colder. He is 

bnt he has been better than the other sick nun. 

oparison is that one person or object 
dl others, this is called the superlative. This d 
twofold nature. 
'I'll ■ /.' degree of the 

■. i/.. to a Dumber 
or a class of similar persona or objects. It is formed by pre- 
the definite article <>r the posseesire pronouns to the 
comp 

.■ roper. U plus grand, the greatest : 
.■ snper. /■ . the least handsome : 

luper, 
. ■ 
When the adjecti I r the Dotm, 

rlatire 
from the compel I before the adjective, 

whether the Boon have a pronoun or an article befop 



ADJECTIVES. $7 

Ex. la personne la plus aimable, the most amiable person ; 
mes vceux les plus sinceres, my most sincere wishes. 

The Absolute Superlative expresses the highest degree of the 
meaning of the adjective absolutely, i. e., without any coinpar 
ison with others. It is formed by prefixing an adverb, expres- 
sive of the highest degree, to the adjective, such as ires, fort 
and bien, very; extremement, extremely; le plus, the most; le 
moms, the least ; le mieux, the best. 

Ex. Paris est Men beau, Paris is handsome indeed ; il est fort 
drole, he is very odd ; elle est extremSment savante, she is ex- 
tremely learned. 

Exercise. 

The uncle is the richest man of the country, but he is not well in- 
formed. A man is most discreet when he has not any secrets. The 
handsome sister is the most charming of the two, but she is too talk- 
ative ; the other is less beautiful but more attractive. Father of 
all creatures, Thou art infinitely good and merciful ! Who is as good 
as he ? She was the best woman of all, and her daughters will be as 
charming as she was. I have a letter for the Eight Eeverend Arch- 
bishop ; he is the wisest man in the church, and most esteemed of all 
dignitaries. He has not been very strong, but he is the most skilful 
of the artisans of the city and does the best work. To the handsomest 
young lady. To the bravest defenders of the country. I have had 
the most interesting letter from my dearest friend. My brothers are 
the worst correspondents ; I have not had any letters since their 
departure. My brother's wife has the smallest child ; it is smaller 
than the little girl of my sister. The smartest children are not 
always the best, and the dullest children are not always the worst. 

PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 

The place of adjectives varies in French, while in English it 
stands invariably before the noun they qualify. 

The manner in which the place is determined, depends : 

1. On Emphasis : An adjective which is strongly accented, is 
placed before its noun, all other rules notwithstanding. 

Ex. cet infortune roi, that unfortunate king ; cette abominable 
chose, that abominable thing. 



6S ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

2. On Size : Long adjectives are placed after short nouns and 
short adjectives before longer nouns. 

Ex. une affaire extraordinaire, an extraordinary affair ; un 
long sejour, a long residence. 

3. Ou Special Rules, by which certain classes of adjectives are 
always placed before, and others after their nouns. 

The principal rules on this subject are the following : 
before the ROUfl are always placed : 

a. Numeral adjectives, both cardinal and ordinal. 

K\. vingt hommeSy twenty men; la premiere chose, the first 
thing. 

b. The following adjectives, autre, other J Iran, handsome; 
bon, good; digne, worthy (unless followed by a regime) ; grand, 
great; oro» t big; jeune, young; joli, pretty; mauvais, bad; 
michant, wicked; meilleur, better ; m6W,&ame; moimfre, less ; 
petit, small; »h, and w>u.r, old. /.o,,,/ is generally 
placed before the noun. 

/• //'o noun are placed by special rule : 
a. All participles, like tuivant, following; satis/ait, satisfied. 
1>. Adjectives conveying an impression made upon the sentem, 
■ r : blane, white; noir, black ; of taste : dour, 
iut, loud ; has, low ; of touch : chaud, 
warm ; : rond, round, etc. 

of nationality, like I'nnicais, French ; 

American, 
d. Adjectives ending in al, like giniral^ fatal. 

Tlir adjectives draft, right ; gauehs, left ; ?■;/'. new; ess, dry, are 
ai^> placed afterthe noon ; dw next, with 'lavs of 

the week. 

■•, last Monday; mardi prarhain, next Tuesday. 

EXBBOIBB. 
He hai B good voice, We have a round table and a handsome 
room. She is n worthy old lady, imd he is a wicked old man. I have 

a big sum, and you shall have a Biuall Bum. The pretty girl of tho 



ADJECTIVES. 69 

ancle is a bad child. Twenty men on the first day, and forty men on 
the third day. She will have a white dress and a pink bonnet ; you 
will have a black dress and a purple shawl. They have warm cloaks 
in these cold days. My French grammar, and my German diction- 
ary. Where is the American fleet ? It is in a Spanish harbor. This 
is a general law, but that is a special exception. Where is the blind 
woman ? I have a new coat. They will be here next Sunday. I 
was there last Friday. 

NUMERICAL ADJECTIVES. 

The numerals are treated in French as adjectives, and must, 
therefore, as far as their forms permit it, agree with the noun 
they qualify, in gender and number. 

Ex. cinq cents hommes, five hundred men ; la premiere his- 
toire, the first history. 

The two principal classes, which alone will be explained here, 
are the Cardinal Numbers, which express numbers simply and 
absolutely, as deux, two ; trois, three, etc. ; and the Ordinal 
Numbers, which express them with regard to order, as second, 
second ; troisieme, third, etc. 

• CARDINAL NUMBERS. 

1 un, une 18 dix-huit 

2 deux 19 dix-neuf 

3 trois 20 vingt 

4 quatre 21 vingt-un 

5 cinq 22 vingt-deux 

6 six 23 vingt-trois 

7 sept 24 vingt-quatre 

8 huit 25 mngt-cinq 

9 neuf 26 mngt-six 

10 dix 27 mngt-sept 

11 onze 28 mngt-Tiuit 

12 douze 29 vingt-neuf 

13 treize 30 trente 

14 quatorse 31 trente-un 

15 quinze 40 quarante 

16 seize 41 quarante-un 

17 dix-sept 50 cinqucmte 



70 



ON THE PAHTS OF SPEECH. 



GO soir 


95 qvatr?-rin<jt-q><i:\ze 


mt&dix 


90 v tee 


! : 


97 q>ititre-vingt-ilix-scpt 


I 


OS quaire-vingt-di/x-h nit 




99 quatre-vingt-dix-TU >tf 


; i torae 


100 «n* 




101 ••< nt-nn, une 




102 




200 (/t".r r</<£ 


knit 


300 fo"0M <•</(( 


■'" "f 


1000 


E 


1001 pimBi "/(, m/w 


t-nn 


•Jill 111 ,/, </./' 


'■dif 






lllDDii 




ldl 




1000000 "■' 




•jui mi ion ,/, em „,; 



'I ),,. ( Jar linal N i indeclinable, except the folio* 

I like tin- indefinite article. 
woman, 
impound form q 
. hundred, take the sign of tin' plural («), 
vlnii they stand immediately before :i noun. 

■ 

But i:' the plural, or il 

;n by another numeral, they remain 
unchai 

]; x . ./ I have •) hundred dollars; 

i cinquanti 

Mill* by adding », and 

written mil. 

■ 



ADJECTIVES. 71 

In stating numbe v s, the French omit both the word a or one, 
before hundred and thousand, and the conjunction and, in com- 
pound numbers, which are used in English. 

Ex. a hundred men, cent homines ; one thousand years, 
mille ans ; eighteen hundred and sixty-seven, mil huit cent 
soixante-sept. 

The Cardinal Numbers cannot be inverted as in English, i. e. 
we cannot say in French five and twenty instead of twenty five ; 
but the smaller number invariably follows the larger. 

Ex. vingt-cinq, five and twenty. 

The Cardinal Numbers from dix-sept, seventeen, upwards to 
quatre-vingt-dix-neuf, ninety-nine, are connected with each 
other by hyphens; in other combinations the hyphen is 
omitted. 

Ex. soixanle-dix-huit, seventy-eight ; cent vingt, hundred and 
twenty. 

Onze is treated as if its initial letter was a consonant. 

Ex. le onze Aout, the eleventh of August. 

Exercise. 

I have given one hundred dollars for the best hook in the library ; 
iry books cost three dollars each. He paid to-day three hundred 
francs to the friends of his brother, and five hundred and ninety- 
three to his landlord. Have you been in the two stores ? I was in 
the city of Paris in eighteen hundred and twenty-three, when it had 
more than six hundred thousand inhabitants. Eighty men fell in the 
battle, and two hundred and fifty were in the hospital. He left two 
millions of dollars, and each child had eight hundred thousand dollars 
for his share. I counted seventeen hundred volumes in the president's 
library, but the library of his son is larger. He had a thousand ex- 
cuses. I have spoken of the adventure a hundred times, and he has 
related a better story a thousand times. The greatest merchant of 
the city has not seventy clerks in his store, and you think that he 
has a hundred and twenty. You counted seventy- seven, but you did 
not count the twenty horses in the stable. In the month of March 
one thousand seven hundred and sixty-three he had spent more than 
five hundred pounds at the game of whist. 



72 



ON" THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



ORDINAL NUMBERS. 



1st premier or unieme 


25tli riiif/t-einqi/ieme 


2d aeeond 01 deuxieme 


30th trentieme 


3d troiaieme 


31st Prente-unieme 


4th quatrieme 


32d trente-deuxieme 


oth riruprieme 


40th quarantumc 


Oth si.ri,'i//r 


41st q>i,trante->iniiine 


7th tepti&TM 


50th ctnguonti&M 


8th /' 


60th soixantieme 


ptifiM 


7<>th 80ixa,7lti diaiiaU 


10th (/< 


71st soiaante-oneieme 


(MflM 


72d s^ix'thti-iloiizii'ino 


IStb tloiizume 


?:M 8oixante4re%ei2m6 


18th (n 


80th quatre-vingti&me 


14th 'I'i'it-'iznme 


81st quatrt vingt-uniime 


16th 7"" 


90th v '■'.'>■' '/''.// tli.'i.'me 




!M~t yutrtj i 


lTtli <•" 


100th 


18th '//■•/-"'• 


IOIbJ r, /,t „, ,;;,/),• 


19th d 


200th </- U3 '•' /iti.'mo 


80th '•/-. 


800th trois-centi&tM 




1000th mOUitru 


■'/. Im* 


'JIM mil, ,/, „.r mi'li.'me 


M WW 


10000th »/;> //'('"/ 




1800000th 



The difference between prewiw and umVmi is this, that tlio 
former i- need only f..>r the first of a Beriea, the latter in com- 
poand nuiuhcrfi. 

MM, the first volutin- ; A* rin<it uu'u inr vo- 

■ <■ twridy-first volutin'. 

The difference between .vwo7,</ (prononnoed v"") and rirnxie- 
v>r, is thai both ••an I" 1 used promiscuously for the second of a 
scrirs. bnt deuxieme alone can form compound Dnmbera. 

Ex. la meande or 2a deuxiimefoia, the second time ; /* trente- 
.<• fepon, the thirty-second le 
Ordinal Numbers are all declined, bntjwvnMr and afeoml 



PRONOUNS. 73 

alone add mute e in the feminine, as the others end already in 
mute e ; all take s in the plural. 

Ex. la premiere annee, the first year; la cinquiime fois, the 
fifth time; les centiemes parties, the hundredth parts. 

The Ordinal Numbers are placed before their noun, except 
when chapters, articles, pages of a book and the like are 
quoted, in which case they may be placed after the noun, as in 
English. 

Ex. le dixieme volume, the tenth volume ; chapitre septieme, 
chapter the seventh ; article premier, article the first. 

Exercise. 

My pretty sister is the first in my affections, and you are the last, 
for you are the least dear. I lent to the doctor the twenty-third vol- 
ume of the edition of Voltaire's work. The third chapter is better 
than the second, but the best of all is the twenty-first. You will find 
the sentiments of the author in the first volume of the work, chapter 
seventh, page hundred and seventh. He arranged the men in three 
ranks, and he gave lances to the first, pistols to the second and mus- 
kets to the third. The thirteenth and the nineteenth are sound ; the 
twelfth and the twenty-first are spoilt. He placed the governor in 
the first seat on the platform, the second was given to the secretary. 
The eighth company and the first were the best of the regiment, but 
the officer who commanded the second, was the bravest man of the 
army. (The) first in war, (the) first in peace, (the) first in the hearts 
of his countrymen. 



CHAPTER IV. 

PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns are words which take the place of nouns, in order 
to avoid repetition. Instead of saying John and John 1 s friend, 
we therefore say, John and his friend ; and instead of Peter 
came and Peter said, simply Peter came and he said. 
4 



7i ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

They are divided into the following classes: 

1. Personal Pronouns, like ^>, I; tu, thou; i7, he. 

2. Possessive Pronouns, like mon, my ; (on, thy ; son, his. 

3. Demonstrative Pronouns, like ce, this; celui-ci, this one. 

4. Relative Pronouns, like qui, who ; Icquel, who. 

5. Interrogative Pronouns, like qui, who I leguel, which ? 

6 Indefinite Pronouns, like on; quiconque, whoever; tout, 
all. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns, like all classes of pronouns in French, 
are divided into two classes : 

Conjunctive, such as are invariably used in immediate connec- 
tion with the verb, and 

Absolute, Buch as arc never need with the verb, hut only 
standing by themselves or with prepositions. 

Conjunctive Personal Pronouns stand in various relatione to 
the veil.. Tiny may be its tubjeet, in which case they arc said 
to be in the nominative. 

Ex. }<' parte, I speak; ntnu allons, we go; on dit, they 
say. 

< »r they may be its direct object, in which case they arc said 
to be in the accusative. 

Kx. Vhomnu me wait, the man sees me; It »t<m<lc le hail, the 
world bates him. 

< >r they may be its indirect <>1,j,ct, in which case they are 
paid to be iii tli-' dative or genitive. 

Kv. Pom* lui parte, the friend speaks to him; lr vice lew 

unit, vice injur, s th. in; /< docteur me parte, the doctor speaks 
to me. 

/.' pert n parte, the father speaks of it ; lafilleen itait mm, 
the daughter was one of tie tin. 

For these various relations the French language has the fol- 
lowing forma : 



PRONOUNS. 



75 










o s 
II 



&? ** .11 



II 



I sill 



O O O 




^ s$ 



° J3 

CO <n 



Y6 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

In order to ascertain readily the nature of the relation of the pro- 
noun to the verb, it is well to remember the manner in which the 
subject aud object in a sentence are determined. 

1. In order to ascertain the subject, we ask by the aid of the verb: 
Who or what does '? The answer gives the subject, which is always 
in the nominative. 

Ex. PUrretst vain. Who has come? Ans. Peter. P.frr is the 

Bubject 

jut ki. Who was here? Ans. She. She to the subject. 
La guerre a eommeneS. What has begun 1 Ans. War. War is 
the subject. 

2. In order to ascertain the MrecL ctyect, we ask in the same man- 
nei : Whom as what does the subject ! The answer gives the direct 
object, which is always the accusative. 

Ex. J'<ii„„- b frere. Whom do I love? Ans. The brother. 
Brother is the direct object 

,,,■,„■,„,. Whom does she love 1 Ans. Mr. Me to the direct 
object. 

Vovelevoyee, Whaftd Ans. It. R to the direct object 

/ •, Whom 'I- they deceive? Ans. 'rhnns.-lv.-s. 

; .j. et 
I [a order to ascertain 1 we aek In the earn© maoa- 

n.-r: To whom on I i ibjecl ! The answer gives the 

•. which is always in the dative. 

■ ,■• To whom do I spaa] the Mend 

;,,-t. 
* To whom does it belong 1 ana. To bar. To 

I Po whom does he give 1 Ans. To them. To them 

ft, what do they add 1 ans. To It To it to the in- 
dlred • 
All three may oeeni in the same sentence. 

Who - Ans. The 
BV »haiid subject In the nominative. What d 

... The preaenl the aired object in the ac 

ro the wife. to the 

Indirect object in the da1 

• . Who present*? ana th.-snb. 

B the nominative. Wht does she Ut e WDt 1 Ans. Them. Let 



PRONOUNS. 77 

is the direct object in the accusative. To whom does she present 
them ? Ans. To them* Leur is the indirect object in the dative. 

This rule is all the more important as the difference between the 
direct and the indirect object, between the accusative and the dative, 
is not always perceptible in English. In the sentence : He gives the 
book, the book is the direct object, in the accusative. In the sentence : 
He gives the hook its due, the book, without any change of form, is the 
indirect object in the dative. Thus, when we say, I gave it my atten- 
tion, we ask : 

Who gave? Ans. I. I is t lie subject, nominative. 

What gave I ? Ans. My attention. Attention is the direct object, 
accusative. 

To what gave I ? Ans. To it. It, therefore, is the indirect object, 
dative. 

Consequently, if we have to translate : 

I gave it to the friend — it is the accusative ; and we will say : Je le 
donnai a I'ami. 

But in : I gave it my attention — it is the dative, and must be trans- 
lated : Je ltd donnai mon attention, or J'y donnai mon attention. 

If we have to translate : 

You gave him back to his friends — him is the direct object, in the 
accusative, and we say : Vous le rendites a sesamis; but in : You gave 
him your friendship — him is the indirect object in the dative, and we 
say : Vous lui donndtes votre amitie. 

It will be seen from this, that the omission of the preposition to, 
before nouns and pronouns in English, must be carefully observed in 
translating into French. 

Je, I, is not written with a capital initial as in English, except 
when it commences a sentence. 

Je, I ; me, me or to me ; te, thee or to thee ; le, him or it ; 
la, her or it ; se, one's self or to one's self, etc., elide their e or 
a when they are placed before a verb beginning with a vowel 
or mute h. 

Ex. (Je aime) j'aime, I love ; (il me embrasse) il mSembrasse, 
he kisses me ; elle fadore, she adores thee ; il V amine, he brings 
him ; il Vexcusent, they excuse her ; on s'habitue, they accus- 
tom themselves. 

These pronouns do not suffer elision when placed after their 



78 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

verb even though they precede a word beginning with a vowel 
or mute k. 

Ex. Voyez-le ici, see it here ; prenez-la avec vous, take it with 
you. 

PLACE OF CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The Conjunctive Personal Pronouns have their place rigor- 
ously assigned to them in their connection with the verb. 

As subject, they stand, as in English, before the verb, except 
in questions, when they are placed after it and connected with 
it by a hyphen. 

Ex. Je veux, I will ; tu paries, thou Bpeakest ; it aime, he loves; 
voulez-votuf will you ? vient-il? does he come ? attone-runuf shall 
we go ? 

As object*, th.v stand immediately before the verb, and in 

Compound re the auxiliary verb (not before the 

participle). 

K\. // me soft, he sees me; to tui die, thou sayesl to htm ; U 
tot parte, he speaks to her; now let atmon*, we love them; mnm 
In eoi I know her; its ,. . they saw us; <7 

. be has seen me; <//< lui <i }>ln, she has pleased him. 

Except in the affirmative imperative, when they are placed 
after the verb, and connected with it by a hyphen. 

1a. Voyet-te, see him : j irl s-fat, Bpeak to her; ditee-moi, tell 
me ; (///':-'/, go to it ; preiws m, take of it 

When the imperative is negative, the pronoun is placed again 
before the rerb. 

K\. Ni me parlt pat, don'l speak to me; n'en prvnes /xu, don*t 
take of it; "< toi risi rim, tell him nothing. 

the Second Conjugation.) 

I'minli if nml give it to your friend; he will Speak of it to ydiu 

v my l«K»ki i>< her, and Bhe gave her gloves to me. Slio 
)..\,.. you, iodshe will shot* you her sincerity, If yon love her as 



PKONOUNS. 79 

well. He has spoken to her, but she has not treated him with the 
same courtesy. Take two of them ; I gave one of them to your friend. 
Why did you place her in that school ? Because I love her dearly. 
They paid them two hundred dollars, and they have spent half of 
them. They deceive themselves if they think of it seriously. My son 
is in the country ; I sent him to the farm, because he was sick. I sent 
him his books. We met them in the road ; they saluted us and passed 
us. Do not thank me, I do not deserve it. You will oblige me, if you 
lend me a thousand dollars. I will give you so much, but I cannot 
give them as much. Speak to them and give them my compliments. 
Have you met them recently, or have you not carried them with you 
to the country ? I have given him my watch, and he has given it to 
his sister. 

(It must be remembered that the French has no neuter gender, and 
that, therefore, the English it, has to be translated by le or la, accord- 
ing to the gender of the noun which it represents). 

ABSOLUTE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Absolute Personal Pronouns stand only by themselves, 
entirely unconnected with any verb, or they are joined to prep- 
ositions. They have, therefore, to be translated according to 
the use made of them in French. 

1st person singular — Moi, I, or me. 

Ex. Moi, je le veux, I, will it. 

11 m'aime, moi, He loves me, me. 

Venez avec moi, Come with me. 

2d person singular — Toi, thou, or thee. 

Ex. Toi, tu te trompes, Thou, art deceived. 

11 t'aime, toi, He loves tliee. 

C'est a toi, It belongs to thee. 

3d person singular — Lui, he, or him. 

Ex. Lui ? B est ici, He ? He is here. 

Qui est Id? Elle, Who is there ? She. 

Vous irez sans elle, You will go without her. 

1st person plural — Nous, we, or us. 

Ex. Nous I'avons, nous, We have it, we. 

Pour nous il a souffert, For us he lias suffered. 



80 OX THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 

2d person plural — Vous, you. 

Ex. Vous y etes vous t You arc there, you. 

11 est centre vous, He is against you. 

j Eur, th( y or them (ui.) ; 
P e S " 1 elles, they or them (f.) 
Ex. Qui voycz-viiust Eur? Whom do you see? Them? 

It est parmi < UX, He is among them. 

JJne entn i One among them. 

Reflexive Pronoun — Soi, one's self. 

Ex. On }>< rue trap d soi, One thinks too much of one's self. 

E.VKl. 

(Learn the Verba of the Third Conjugation.) 

Who was in the honael Be and she. Weretheynot also In the 

Who ur.- theyl I >i*'nk of the friends <>f the family. For 

me, I <!■> n. •( receive nay guests, but you, who are young und 

healthy, yon can do it f<>r li-r. 1 will buy these books for them, if 

oanpay me. When 1 k'> isaid: "Whoisth 

It is 1." They did nol bear me, and at last he came, 11.'.' 
Do yon speak of the owner 1 Fee, it was he and oot Bhe, who opened 
tin- door for me. With whom s with him and with 

her, Without them I cannol live. Bpeak to them, they art- friends, 
but be, he is a Berce enemy. These ladies bad among them s great 
beanty, who spoke to all oar friends, bm ss to us, she did nol notice 
us. Oame with me and 1 will go with thee to the end of the world. 

POSSI 

.n-, wl icfa qualify nouna by mean of refer* 
ence to the possessor, are, like all pronouns, divided into Con- 
junctive and Absolute, 

. ,■ those which are inva> 
: in immediate connection with s conn, which they 
,o. They correspond to those in English, which an 
a*ed .-ui} , like my, thy t our, and pour. I 

bave I g Jonas: • 



PRONOUNS. 






singular. 






PLURAL. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


(For 


both Genders.) 


1. mon, my. 


ma. 




mes. 


2. ton, thy. 


ta. 




to. 


3. son, Ms, her, its. 


sa. 




sea. 


1. notre, our. 


notre. 




nos. 


2. wtre, your. 


voire. 




vos. 


3. leur, their. 


leur. 




leurs. 



81 



These Pronouns, which, in English agree with the noun 
which they represent, agree in French in gender and number 
with the noun which they qualify. 

Thus we say in English : 

The man and his daughter — his agreeing with man, in English. 

Vhomme et sa ftlle — sa agreeing with fille, in French. 

The mother and her son — her agreeing with mother, in English. 

La mere et son fils — son agreeing with fils, in French. 

The three feminine forms ma, ta and sa, when they come to 
stand before a noun beginning with a vowel or mute h, are ex- 
changed for the masculine forms mon, ton and son, to avoid the 
hiatus. 

Ex. (ma amide), mon amitie, my friendship. 
(ta histoire), ton histoire, thy history. 
(sa haleine), son haleine, his breath. 

These Possessive Pronouns are declined, like all other words 
in French, by means of the prepositions de (of), for the genitive, 
and a (to) for the dative. This gives the following forms : 



SINGULAR. 

Nom. mon Uvre, my book. 

Gen. de mon Uvre, of my book. 

Dat. d mon Uvre, to my book. 

Ace. mon Uvre, my book. 

Nom. mafemme, my wife. 

Gen. de mafemme, of my wife. 

Dat. a ma femme, to my wife. 

Ace mafemme, my wife. 



PLURAL. 

mes livres, my books. 

de mes litres, of my books. 

d mes livres, to my books. 

mes livres, my books. 

ses enfants, his children. 
de ses enfants, of his children. 

a ses enfants, to his children. 

ses enfants, his children. 



9* 



82 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

TSfotre and voire before nouns beginning with a consonant are pro 
nounced as if they were written ad and wt only. 
Ex. notre mauon, out house ; wtfrsjpere, your lather. 

The Possessive Pronouns and their prepositions must be repeated 
before every noun which they qualify. 

Ex. To my father and mother, d mon pire et a ma mere; of youi 
brothers and sisters, de DOSjrSreB <t d<: voss<xurs. 

EzSRCISE. 

(Learn the Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation.) 
Hifl friend and my frie&d were cousins. Your brother will speak 
to my uncle, when he sees him in the city. Tell your sister the 
secret, but do not tell it to your brother, for men are not B8 discreet as 
women. My wit'.' will jive it toh ir brothers and sifters, and i>orhaps 
th.v will i..- satisfied with ■■\>\^. He had forgotten his hat, ease 
and ranis ; he is v.ry absent minded. Give me my letters anil I will 
give 70a your papers. Are these your children 1 Where is hie His- 
tory of the Republic! This is my history. Your cousin is a beautiful 

la.ly, but the i- leSB Charming than her -ister. My aunt and her two 
pons are with us : your aunt i- still absent in Europe They will be 

here in the Bummar with their children and their tutor. His hatred 
■ma the cause of his terrible rengeance; he will expiate his crimes 
on the mflbld Oar actions do not always have their effects in this 
world. 

,.}/„.,,/,, are those which are used with- 

out a 11. -uii, a- substitute* for :i n.-un, like our English mine and 

thine, by tin' side of my and thy. 

They ate always accompanied by the article, and present the 
. ng forms : 





1 1 \H. 


v\ ikai,. 






1". m. 


M:ive 


Fern. 


1. 


mine. 


l<t mit 


hs 


I.s 111 >> runs. 


B. 


thine. 


ii ttt , 


l.s ' 


Ii .« ti> num. 




, his. 








-.]. 


hi r-. 

'its. 




let - 


MM 


1. 


fa ntort 




/<.< 


hx 1 n't re*. 




yours. 




/,.- 


hs rt'tn*. 


1). 


their*. 


In bur. 


' tart, 


\ 'iri. 



PRONOUNS. bj 

It must be noticed that the conjunctive forms notre and voire 
have no accent, and are pronounced with a short o, whilst the 
absolute forms lendtre and levotrehave a circumflex accent, and 
are pronounced with a long o. 

These pronouns agree in gender and number with the noun 
which they represent, thus : 

Mon pire et le vdtre, my father and yours. 

Voire mere et la mienne, your mother and mine. 

Tes enfauts et les siens, thy children and his. 

Ses filles et les leurs, her daughters and theirs. 

Exercise. 
I see my horses, where are yours? His sons and his daughters are 
older than mine, hut they are younger than yours. I like his pictures 
and yours, but I prefer ours. My children and theirs play every day 
in the same garden. Where is your hat ? this is mine. He gave me 
a ring, and said : " Is it yours or mine 1" Show him these young 
horses, they are mine. My farm is small but productive ; after my 
death it will be his, and he will make it still more fertile. Have you 
found your friends ? No, but I have seen yours. My country and 
his have had a long war : his is exhausted, mine is es great as it was 
before. Bring me his exercises and hers, I will correct them together. 
Our friends are Protestants, hers are Catholics. I confided this secret 
to my friends and to theirs. 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Demonstrative Pronouns, which qualify nouns by designating 
their relation to time or place, are Conjunctive and Absolute. 

Conjunctive Demonstrative Pronouns are those which are in- 
variably used in immediate connection with a noun or the verb 
etre, to be. They have the following forms : 

Ce, this or that, before masculine nouns beginning with a 
consonant or aspirated h, and such forms of the verb itre as 
begin with consonants. 

Ex. ce livre, this book ; ce heros, that hero ; ce fut lui, this 
was he ; cc sera demain, that will be to-morrow. 



Si ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Cet, before nouns beginning with a vowel or mute h. 

Ex. cet ami, ihis friend ; cet komme, that man. 

C\ before such forms of the verb etre as begin with a 
vowel. 

Ex. c\'st moi, this is I ; c'etait hier, that was yesterday. 

Cette, before all feminine nouns. 

Ex. cette femme, this woman ; cette affaire, that affair; cette 
kabittlde, that habit. 

. these or those, before all plural nouns. 

Ex. ces rots, these kings; cet dames, these ladies; ccs amis, 
these friend -, these souls; ccs habits, these coats; 

tea harengt, those herrii 

These Demonstrative forms agree in gender and number with 
the Donn which they qualify, and most be repeated before 
even noun to which they are applied. 

Ex. This man and woman, cet homme et cette femme ; these 
and papers, cet Uvret it cet papiers. 

ExKRCISE. 

This young man is my ooosin, and that young lady is my Mend. 
I have seen thai great man and those excellent paintings of his hand. 
They are better than those works >>f ait in the Museum. Then 
grapes come from tlii- garden and from our farm. Grant ilmt t'a\..r 
t<> this 111:111 are better than those pencils. This woman 

il with t Ij . >- . • children she suffers poverty. This 
intrepid sailor ventured on thai adventure with these two men. That 
atl. i r was painful t.. those nun in thai country. Give these Bowers 
t" that .ami tell her that if that man ask- her, I will 

come t.> her aid. I would live in that house with your friends, if I 
had that garden. 

AieoluU Demonstrative Pronouns are those which are 1 
with a n. .mi ot a verb, but always stand by tin msclves as 
substitutes for a noun, 
They arc form mbination of the Conjunctiva Pip- 



PKONouisrs. 85 

noun ce, with the Absolute Personal Pronoun, and produce the 
following forms : 

Masc. ce and lui make celui, this or that one. 

Fem. ce " elle " celle, " " 

Masc. ce " eux " ceux, these or those. 

Fem. ce " ettes " cedes, " " 

Besides which, there are the two compounds : 
Ce and id make ceci, this (for things.) 
Ce " Id " cela, that " 

The first four, celui, celle, ceux and celles, are always made to 
agree in gender and number with the noun which they represent. 

Ex. This general and that of the enemy, ce general et celui 
de Vennemi ; my wife and that of my friend, ma femme et celle 
de man ami ; these children and those of my uncle, ces enfants 
et ceux de mon oncle • our ladies and those of the neighbor, 
nos dames et celles du voisin. 

Exercise. 
My children and those of my sister are the prettiest in the city. 
These soldiers with their chief were as proud as those of the younger 
general. These rivers are deep, those are shallow, but these have a 
short course and those are the longest in the world. Give me these 
drawings and send those to the bookseller ; I will keep this and give 
that to your friend. Examine these flowers ; which will you have, 
this or that ? I prefer these volumes, which are complete ; those, 
wdiich are disfigured, are for him. Of those ladies, I like those who 
are modest ; these, which you see here, are too talkative. This house 
Is handsome ; that, at the corner, is larger but less comfortable. I 
spoke to him of these amusements ; he said that he loved those 
which were more quiet. Where is that noise ? Is it this cock which 
makes it, or those hens in the yard ? When I was here before, I saw 
these, but those were not in the gallery. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Relative Pronouns are those which relate to a preceding 
noun, which is called Antecedent. 

There are two Relative Pronouns in French, which have 



86 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

precisely the same meaning, and differ only in the use which 
is made of them. They correspond both to our English who, 
what, that, which, etc. 

The first of these is qui, which has the following forms ■ 

Num. Qui, who, that or which. 

Ex. Vhomme qui est ici, the man who is here ; le livre qui 'i 
paru, the book which has appeared ; la maison qui est au com, 
the house that is at the corner. 

Gen. Doni (for pereonsor things), ) ^ fwhoni| of *„;,,,. 

/>. qui ■ for persons onlv , J 
Ex. /.■ uoldat doni je por/c, the soldier of whom I speak; 
a J,,,,/!/ eausait, that of which he was speaking; rami dsquijs 
It fens, the friend from whom I have it; eelui dequi UJU men- 
of whom he made mention. 
1 >at A | ', to whom. 

i; v , the neighbor to whom I write; 

. she to whom it belongs. 

\ . ', ■ whom, Which or what. 

].; v f the beggar whom I saw; la chose 

'oubliai, the thing whion I foi Irsa qu'U krivait, 

the letters that be s 

-»»•"». »»' i - 1 ' «J«T|-"-»- l.| wjl , (lsitinns . 

what, wlnrli (for things . | 
| A | those (br whom 1 have done it, 

,„,, , v wife to whom I presented 

him; a h quo* i/sert, that tor which it is good ; BMcgwoitl 

ten all". With which (wh.i. with) he went away. 

The pronoun qui with its various forms serves for both gen- 
ii, r~ and for both numbers alike ! 

[«»«"**. Uhc is bat 
/ the woman, j 

, t ., IJlZ . f^eboj, l whomyomiNk 



, que tout o'y>z. 
Its fiU<«. ) I *» K'rlN 



PRONOUNS. 87 

The second Demonstrative Pronoun is lequel, which is de 
clined in both of its parts, in le and quel, and thus produces the 
following forms : 





Masc. 


Fem. 


Mas. 


Fem. 


Nom. 


lequel, 


laquette. 


lesquels, 


lesqueUe. 


Gen. 


duquel, 


de laquelle. 


desquels, 


desqueUes. 


Dat. 


auquel, 


a laquelle. 


auxquels, 


auxquelles. 


Ace. 


lequel, 


laquelle. 


lesquels, 


lesqueUe. 



It has the same meanings as the first, but as it shows so 
much more clearly gender and number by its various forms, 
it is frequently substituted for qui to avoid ambiguity, and it 
must always be used when the relative pronoun is dependent 
on a preposition. It must agree in gender and number with 
the noun to which it relates. 

Ex. My friend, without ivhom I cannot live, mon ami, sans 
lequel je ne saurais vivre ; the books for which you paid, les 
livres pour lequels vous payates ; the difficulties through which 
we have passed, les difficultes par lesquelles nous avons passe. 

Exercise. 

The person who spoke was not the lady whom you admired. This 
woman is the same of whom I received a letter, when I was in that 
city, in which you also have been recently. The pictures for which I 
paid this high price, are worse than those among which you found 
your Madonna. I like the man to whom she gave the flowers ; he was 
one of those for whom I feel sympathy. The friend whose advice 
was so good is my friend also ; he is a man of whom much has been 
said. The daughter of the soldier, with whom you came is very 
pretty, but her cousin, for whom I feel an admiration, is prettier. The 
thing to which you refer is a trifle, but the sums which you owe to 
that man are a serious affair. That of which I spoke and that of which 
I wrote are two different things ; the principal subject is that mar- 
riage, in which you are so much interested. 



Nom. 


qui, 


Gen. 


I de qui, 


Dat. 


I a qui, 

I a ij'toi, 




t '/<"'< 


Ace. 


- '/'"'. 







88 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Interrogative Pronouns are those which enable us to ask 
questions without a constant repetition of the noun. They are 
the same in French as the relative, with the exception of don t, 
which can never be used interrogatively. 
The first, qui, presents the following forms: 
who? 
of whom ? 
of what ! 
to whom ? 

to what .' 

whom ? 

what? 

what ? (when standing alone.) 
It must be noticed that the prepositions connected with tho 
interrogative as well as with the relative pronoun are, in 
English, frequent from the pronoun and placed at 

In French the preposition must 
always retain it- pi i be pronoun. 

k of? 

Wi . ', , 

lUST 

Qui | - 
"u hat did be treat 
\\ bom did -1 

Thr - '. has the same forma a-> th< 

em only be used rhea it has the moaning o* 

which I 

\'.\. I imea eonnoi Which 

o:' the dU des saura est 

Which of thi 

A third interrogative Pronoun is quel, which has the mean- 
•' what kind of! and i- declined like lequel, but can only 
■ onn. 
Ex. Quel i ' What kind of man is he I QutUt* 



PRONOUNS. 89 

tortes de marchandises ? What kind of goods? Quelle est cette 
femme? What kind of woman is she? 

Exercise. 
Who has written this hook ? The same author for whom you pro- 
fessed a great admiration. See tlie four pens : which one do you 
prefer ? What did he speak of, when he made that great speech, 
with which he ended his career ? Whom do you take me for ? What 
do you want of me ? I will tell you who he is and for whom he ap- 
pears here. Which of the four seasons do you like hest ? I do not 
know for which I shall decide, I like them all. With whom did she 
go to Europe, and with what will she occupy her time at Eome ? 
What did he devote himself to during that year, and what has he 
written ? I know whom you speak of. What did he write about in 
his last letter ? Which of these ladies is your sister, and to which 
must I speak ? Who is this soldier, and what does he say 1 What 
kind of watch have you bought ? I have heard what kind of statues 
he makes, but I have forgotten it. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

Indefinite Pronouns are those which refer, not to any one 
person or object definitely, but to some one vaguely or gener- 
ally. They are generally the same as in English, e. g., some, 
quelque ; none, per sonne ; all, tout ; but there is one of them 
of very great importance, which alone will be mentioned here. 

This is on, a Personal Indefinite Pronoun, inasmuch as it is a 
Pronoun, standing instead of a noun ; Personal, because it" can 
only represent persons, and Indefinite, because it never desig- 
nates persons individually, but only generally. It has no equiv- 
alent in English, and is, therefore, translated in various ways. 
It can only be used as subject of a sentence, in the nominative 
case, with the third person singular of the verb, and referring to 
men, i. e., neither to agencies above nor below him. We add 
the principal ways by which it is rendered into English. 

On pense trop a soi-meme. People think too much of them- 

selves. 
Oupeut-on etre mieux qu'au sein Where can one he happier than in 
de safamille ? the bosom of one's family? 



90 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

On dit que la guerre est finie. It is acrid the war is over. 

On n'est peis toujour* buns amis. Men are not always good friends. 

On travaiUe jour it nuit. They work night and day. 

On se trampe, madame. You are mistaken, madame. 

On Pa repute partout. It has been repeated everywhere. 

On acquiert V experience avec le We acquire experience with time. 
temps. 

Exercise. 

They say that he has left his family a large fortune. What did 
people do when the news was brought ? People said that it was very- 
sad, but they added, that the punishment was well deserved. Can 
one lodge in this bote] '.' One is not always young and pretty. One 
is not always happy, when one is very rich, for (the) happiness is in 
the heart. It i> repeated to-day thai the emperor has declared war, 
and it is believed in all circlea Was it said which of these persons 
bnahend of the lady who perished in the shipwreck ''. It was 
not known, when I left the ship, but it will be known when the Jour- 
nals of tin- day are brought 



CHAPTER V. 



Verbs are that part <>f speech which servos to express action, 
and therefore is used to saj something of a person <-r an object 
The) have a great rarietj of forma in order to express the 

, wlm i> the sgent of the Verb: the first, second or 

third, 

or more : singular <>r plural, 
of the action : present, past or future, 

e action : Indicative (po.sitr. 

juncture (contingent), Imperative and Conditional, 

Xatnr, of the Verb itself: Active, I I'ronomi- 

nal and Impersonal, 

all of which varieties will be explained in their proper place. 



VEKBS. 



91 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 



Auxiliary Verbs sro called those which, besides being used 
by themselves, are also employed to form the so-called Cora- 
pound Tenses of other verbs. There are two in French : 

Avoir, to have, which serves to form the compound tenses of 
Active and some Neuter Verbs, and 

Etre, to be, which serves to form the compound tenses of 
Neuter and Pronominal Verbs, and the passive of Active Verbs. 

AVOIR.— TO HAVE. 



INFINITIVE. 


PARTICIPLE. 


Avoir, to have. 


ayant, having. 


avoir eu, to have had. ayant eu, having had. 




eu, had. 




Simple Tenses. 




INDICATIVE. 




PRESENT. 


Tai 


I have, I do have, I am having 


tu as 


thou hast 


il or elle a 


he or she has 


nous avons 


we have 


vous avez 


you have 


Us or eUes ont 


they have 




IMPERFECT. 


tTavais 


I had, I did have, I was having 


tu amis 


thou hadst 


il or elle amit 


he ox she had 


nous avions 


we had 


vous aviez 


you had 


Us or dies a/oaient 


they had 




PRETERIT DEFINITE. 


J'eus 


I had, I did have, I was having 


tu eus 


thou hadst 


U or elle eut 


he or she had 


nous eumes 


we had 


vous elites 


you had 


Us or dies eurent 


they had 



92 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



tTaurai 
Pi auras 
U or eUe aura 
nous aurons 
rous ann- 
ils or elics auront 

Taurais 
t>i auarari 

n trait 
■i-n/s 
tout aurim 

Us or cU-s 1 1 ur aunt 



'. 

ait 
I n/<>ns 

5 



I 
gu't? n 

HJ0M 



FUTURE. 

I shall or will have 

thou shalt have 

he or she shall have 

we shall have 

you shall have 

they shall have 
CONDITIONAL. 

I should or would have 

thou shouldst have 

he or she should have 

we should have 

you should have 

tiny should have 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 

not i 

That I may have 

thou mayest havo 

that he Or Bhe may have 
that we m:iy havo 
that you may have 
that they may ha\ B 

i di i acrra, 

That 1 might hav- 

that thou mightest have 

that he "/• sin- might have 

that we might ha\ o 
that you might have 
that they might have 



a eu 

■ns eu 



Coin, ICtf. 

INDICATIVE. 

PlfllMT IM'I 1 1MTK. 
I hav.' hail 
thou hast had 

■he hai had 
we have had 
bare had 

tiny have had 



VEKB3. 



03 



J 'avals eu 

tu avals eu 

U or elle avalt eu 

nous avians eu 

vous avlez eu 

Us or dies avalent eu 



PLUPERFECT. 

I had had 

thou hadst had 
he or she had had 
we had had 
you had had 
they had had 



J'eus eu 

tu eus eu 

11 or elle eut eu 

nous eumes eu 

vous eutes eu 

Us or elles eurent eu 



PBETERIT ANTERIOR. 
I had had 



thou hadst had 
he or she had had 
we had had 
you had had 
they had had 



tTaurai eu 

tu auras eu 

it or elle aura eu 

nous aurons eu 

vous aurez eu 

Us or elles auront eu 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall or will have had 
thou shalt have had 
he or she shall have had 
we shall have had 
you shall have had 
they shall have had 



tPaurals eu 

tu aurals eu ■ 

II or eUe auralt eu 

nous aurlons eu 

vous auriez eu 

Us or elles auralent eu 



CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. 

I should or would have had 
thou shouldst have had 
he or she should have had 
we should have had 
you should have had 
they should have had 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 



Que j 'ale eu 

que tu ales eu 

qu'U or qu'elle ait eu 

que nous ayons eu 

que vous ayez eu 

qu'Us or qu' elles alent eu 



that I may have had 
that thou mayest have had 
that he or she may have had 
that we may have had 
that you may have had 
that they may have had 



94 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

Que fame eu that I might have had 

§"/< (n ensues cu that thou mighteet have had 

qu'il or qn'dle efit eu that he or she might have had 

gut notU i lt88iOTU m that we might have had 

qn,< tout • UMMB ( >i that you might have had 

qu'Us or qu'dLs eussent eu that they might have had 

IMPERATIVE. 
Ate have [thou] 

qui' or gtftBfl a»* let him or her have 

OffOHt let as have 

have [you] 
yu'ito or qu'dUs aient let thorn have 

Exercise. 
I have the same book that you have had. We desired that he might 
hare ■ speedy end, for be has had a terrible disease. Let bin have all 
the money thai he derives ; we have had <>ur share. Ymi should bare 
had patJenoa. I hope that be may have letters from his friends to- 
day ; JTOU had your- J BSterdaj. Y r OO WOUld have a large estate, and y<iu 
Will have a large fortune ptill. Thou hadst a better memory tlian I, 
hut thou will liave to learn more. He will liave had two warnings. 
patience with them, and let them have a desire to do 
their duty. He hopes that aha may have friends, and we hope that 

she may haven husband, hut she has had enemies. They had had a 

meeting, and they will have had six in one month, she would have 

had n : if hfl had been present 



Avoir (Neyativtly.) 

1 N l •• l N I T i v I 

Ne pas nr.'ir not to have 

no! to have had 



VERBS. 



05 



PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

N' ay ant pas not having 

COMPOUND OP THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

B'ayant pas eu not having had 

Simple Tenses. 
INDICATIVE. 
PRESENT. 

I Lave not 
thou hast no 
he has not 
we have not 
you have not 
they have not 

IMPERFECT. 

I had not 
thou hadst not 
he had not 
we had not 
you had not 
they had not 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

I had not 
thou hadst not 
he had not 
we had not 
you had not 
they had not 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall or will not have 
thou shalt not have 
he shall not have 
we shall not have 
you shall not have 
they shall not have 

CONDITIONAL. 

I should or would not have 
thou shouldst not have 



Je n'ai pas 
tu n'as pas 
il n'a pas 
nous n'avons pas 
votes n'avez pus 
Us n'ont pas 

Je n 'avals pax 
tu n'avois pas 
il n'avait pas 
nous n'avions pas 
vous n'aviez pa s 
Us n'amient pas 

Je n'eus pas 
tu n'eus pas 
il n'eut pas 
nous n'e umes pas 
vous n'eutes pas 
Us n'eurent pas 

Je n'aurai pas 
tu n'auras pas 
il n'aura pas 
nous n'aurom pas 
vous n'aurez pas 
Us n'auront pas 

je n'aurais pas 
tu n'aurais paa 



'JQ 



ON THE FABTS OF SPEECH. 



U n'aurait pas 
nous n'aurions pas 
vous n'auricz pas 
Us n'auraicrd pas 



he should not have 
we should not have 
you should not have 
they should not have 



Je n'ai pas eu 
tu n'as pas < u 
U n'apcu ■ u 

awns pas eu 
vous n'avet pan u 
Us h'ont pas eu. 



Jt n'aoauptu tu 

tu //■/ 
U n'n 

U* a 'a i 



Compound Tenses. 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

I have not had 
thou hast not had 
he has not had 
we have not had 
you have not had 
they have not had 

rouraBFB t. 

I had not had 
tlmu hadst not had 
be had not had 
we had not had 

you had not had 

th'-y had not had 



ion. 

J l had M"t had 

thou hadst not had 
he had not had 

we had not had 

«w»»m /,'. voti had not had 

Us n'l had not had 



J,- n'.iunn p 

(>i a'ow 

U n'a'ira pat 

ton* n'.i'in: p 

Us n'auro.U pas eu 



MOB. 
I ■ball or will not lmvo had 
thou shalt not have had 

be shall not hare had 
we shall not hare hud 

\.ill 11. •[ haw had 
t ! i • y shall not have had 



(ONTJITTONAT. VNTI 



ti n'nuraiA pas eu 



I should Of would not have had 
thOD ■hOOldal QOt have hud 



VETtBS. 



97 



il n'awrait pas eu 
nous n'aurions pas eu 
vous n'auriez pas eu 
Us n'auraient pas eu 



Que je n'aie pas 
que tu n'aies pas 
qu'il n'ait pas 
que nous n'ayons pas 
que vous n'ayez pas 
qu'ils n'aient pas 



he should not have had 
we should not have had 
you should not have had 
they should not have had 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

that I may not have 
that thou mayest not have 
that he may not have 
that we may not have 
that you may not have 
that they may not have 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 



Queje n'aie pas eu 
que tu n'aies pas eu 
qu'il n'ait pas eu 
que nous n'ayons pas eu 
que vous n'ayezpas eu 
qu'ils n'aient pas eu 



Queje neusse pas 
que tu n'eusses pas 
qu'il n'eut pas 
que nous n'eussions pas 
que vous n'eussiezpas 
qu'ils n'eussent pas 



that I may not have had 
that thou mayest not have had 
that he may not have had 
that we may not have had 
that you may not have had 
that they may not have had 

IMPERFECT. 

that I might not have 
that thou mightest not have 
that he might not have 
that we might not have 
that you might not have 
that they might not have 



Queje n'eusse pas eu 
que tu n'eusses pas eu 
qu'il n'eut pas eu 
que notes n'eussions pas eu 
que vous n'eussiez pas eu 
qu'ils n'eussent pas eu 



PLUPERFECT. 

that I might not have had 
^that thou mightest not have had 
that he might not have had 
that we might not have had 
that you might not have had 
that they might not have had 



N'aie pas 
qu'il n'ait pas 



IMPERATIVE. 

have not [thou] 
let him not have 
5 



93 



OX TIIE TARTS OF SFEECH. 



n'ayoHs p as 
n'ayee pat 

qri'ils n'akid pan 


let us not have 
have not [you] 
let them not have 


Avoir 


To Have (Tntcrropatin 








INDI C A T 1 V E . 




ran 


Ai-je 

a-til 


Last tllOU 
Las lie 


« 


have we 
yon 




r.HT B 


': 


had I 

• thou 

had he 




hud wo 


Mb 


had they 








tllOU 

i ho 




ira 


t-U* 


had v.ni 
had they 




i i ; i 


A u r i 
auront 

- out 
awout-ils 


nhall »>■ will I have 
Bhalt thou have 

■hall 1m- Ihivc- 
hlinll we have 

■hall thi ;• have 



VERBS. 



9? 



aurais-tu 

aurait-il 

aurions-nous 

auriez-vous 

auraient-ils 



Ai-je eu 
as-tu eu 
a-t-il eu 
avons-nous eu 
avez-vous eu 
ont-ils eu 

Avais-je eu 
avais-tu eu 
avait-il eu 
avions-nous eu 
aviez-vous eu 
avaient-ils eu 



Eus-je eu 
eus-tu eu 
eut-il eu 
eumes-nous eu 
eutes-vous eu 
eurent-ils eu 



Aurai-je eu 
auras-tu eu 
aura-t-il eu 
aurons-nous eu 
aurez-vous eu 
auront-ils eu 



CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

should or would I have 
shouldst thou have 
should he Have 
should we have 
should you ha> e 
should they have 

Compound Tenses. 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

have I had 
hast thou had 
has he had 
have Ave had 
have you had 
have they had 

PLUPERFECT. 

had I had 
hadst thou had 
had he had 
had we had 
had you had 
had they had 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

had I had 
hadst thou had 
had he had 
had we had 
had you had 
had they had 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

shall or will I have had 
shalt thou have Lad 
shall he have had 
shall we have had 
shall you have had 
shall they have had 



tore. 



100 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. 

. . ( should or would, could, or might I 

iWW ^ W \ have had 

aurafct Idst thou have had 

fl«r-/i'' should he have had 

-■■(-no!/* cw should we have had 

should you have had 
should they have had 



Avoir 



To Have {Negatively and Interrogatively?) 



IN DICATIVB. 



■ » pas 
< pa* 

! 

■ 



■ 

I 

n'aura*4u pas 



I'KI -T.NT. 

have I not 
bast thou not 
has b 

liavi- W8 not 

mrEK 

h.-i'Ul tlmu nut 

had I 
had v 

l lint 

had they not 

had I n>>t 
lia.lst tlmii not 

had 

ha I • 
had j 

had tl 

9T will I no! luvo 
hhalt thou not have 



VERBS. 101 

riaura-Hl pas shall he not have 

riauroiis-nouspas ' shall we not have 

n'aurez-vous pas shall you not have 

riauront-Us pas shall they not hav 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

N'aurais-je pas should or would I not have 

n'aurais-tu pas shouldst thou not ha% e 

n'aurait-il pas should he not have 

ri ' aurions-nous pas should we not have 

riauriez-vous pas should you not have 

riauraient-ils pas should they not have 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

N'ai-je pas eu have I not had 

n'as-tu pas eu hast thou not had 

n'a-t-il pas eu has he not had 

riavons-nous pas eu have we not had 

n'avez-vous pas eu have you not had 

riont-ils pas eu have they not had 

PLUPERFECT. 

N'avais-je pas eu had I not had 

riavais-tu pas eu hadst thou not had 

riavait-il pas eu had he not had 

riadons-nous pas eu had we not had 

n'aviez-vous pas eu had you not had 

ri 'amient-ils pas eu had they not had 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

UTeus-je %)as eu had I not had 

rieus-tu pas eu hadst thou not had 

rieut-il pas eu had he not had 

ri etlmes-nous pas eu had we not had 

rieutes-vous pas eu had you not had 

rieurent-ils pas eu had they not had 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

IPaurai-je pas eu shall or will I not have had 

riauras-tu pas eu shalt thou not have had 



102 



ON THE TARTS OF SPEECH. 



n' aura-til prist en 

n'cnwee-wuB pas eu 

itauroitt-ih pas eu 



shall he not hare had 
shall we not have had 
shall you not have had 
shall they not have had 



CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. 



ITaiurai 
n'tturaia-tu pcu < u 

n'aurittMwnu pas eu 

n'awraitnt I', pas eu 



Bhonld or would I not have liad 
shouldst thou not have had 
I be aol have had 

. we not have had 
>u aol have had 
i iuy not have had 



V won: 



There To Be 
I X F IN1TIVE. 



(Affirmatively.} 



th. re i" havr been 



U y a 

I 

P i/ am-.i 



PAK1 
OOMPOCHD 

then 
[NDICATIVJ 

th. are 

IMI'I B 

then were 

I 

til. - :• were 

. be 



VERBS. 103 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

U y aurait there would be 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

11 y a eu there has been or there have been 

PLUPERFECT. 

H y avait eu there had been 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

It y eut eu there had been 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

JR y aura eu there will have been 

CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. 

It y aurait eu there would have been 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

Qu'il y ait that there may be 

IMPERFECT. 

Qu'il y e&t that there might be 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

Qu'il y ait eu that there may have been 

PLUPERFECT. 

Qu'il y efit eu that there might have been. 



Y Avoir There To Be {Negatively) 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 

Ne pas y wtoir not there to be 

PAST. 

Ne pas y avoir eu not there to have been 



104 ON" THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

2Py ayant pas there not being 

COMPOUND OP THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

2Ty ayant pas eu there not having been 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

II n'y a pas there is not or there are not 

IMPERFECT. 

Jl n'y avail pas there was not or there were not 

FltETEUIT PKflNlTE. 

11 n'y at pas there was not or there were not 

BTJTOBB ABSOLUTE. 

Jl n'y aura there will not be 

CONDITIONAL. 

Jl n'y iiurait pas there would not be 

I'RETEHIT IM-llIM 1 I.. 

Bn'gapat tin -re has not been 

ri.i im : 
Jl n'y acail pas eu then had not btt B 

ri:i I l.i:ir IB n.!;!..|i. 
Jl »'j there had not lteen 

nri 1:1. ami num. 

then will not huve beta 
uumrriuflAi urxHBiaB. 

Jl ft'jf ensrattpat CU there would not have been 

SURHNCTIVK. 

Qii'il n'y nit pas thai there may not be 

tun eu 

Qu'U n'y <•,',( pat that there might not be 



VERBS. 



105 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

tii'il n'y ait pas eu that there may not have been 

PLUPERFECT. 

Qu'U n'y eut pas eu that there might not have been 



Y Avoir 

Ya4-U 

Yavait-il 
Yettt-il 

Y aura-t4l 

Y auraU-il 
Ya-t-tt eu 

Y avait-U eu 
Yeut4l eu 

Y aura-Ul eu 



There To Be {Interrogatively.) 

INDICATIVE. 



is there or are there 

IMPERFECT. 

was there or were there 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

was there or were there 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

will there be 
CONDITIONAL. 



would there be 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

has there been or have there been 

PLUPERFECT. 

had there been 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

had there been 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

will there have been 



CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. 

Y aurait-il eu would there have been 

5* 



106 ON THE PARTS Or SPEECH. 

Y Avoir There To L, ly and Interrogatively.) 

INDICATIVE. 

BBHT. 

N'y a-t-il pas is there not or are there not 

DfFER] 
JTy atait-il pas '-re not or were there not 

> ITE. 
2fy cut il »t r wore there not 

_Y'y cm ra .' . will there not be 

ONAL, 

N'y aurait-U pas would there not be 

FBI i 

ire not been 
X"y cm cmH <•' ;*w en had than not been 

.MR. 

,\"i/ 1 had there n<'t been 

■TO tOB. 

jtaseu will there oot ham 

would there not have been 

She baa hi ■ nta. H* wfcjhed, 

when be left u*. that be i iword and ■ pistol ; be arid that 

he bad eonrage En tea, ' the R vei t\\ Ice, I shall n-. 

i, ,);. merl Bhonld I not bare 

hadaemoch aahel la hare health and a long 

l i f , . . Bad jron kwi aba '' : »l net 
party 1 I hoped, that aha Bright have had it. when I was there, bat 



VERBS. 



101 



she had had one a week before my arrival. To have had an accident 
]ike that ! Who could have had an idea of this affair? Would not 
thev have had more friends, if they had had more discretion ? 



Let them have their desire, and they might not have had it. Will 
he have money, when he shall have had a great success ? Would 
we not have the same master, if we had had the same training ? 
Should we have good wines, and should we have water for our meals ? 
I thought that we had had the greatest misfortunes, but she has had 
even greater. Has she not much wit ? She has had it, but she has it 
not now that she is old. When we shall have had all, we shall have 
had little after all. Has he many friends, and has she many relations 
in that city ? Thou hast had thy will, now let them have theirs. You 
had riches and you have power now. Which would you have, if you 
had the choice ? 



Etke 



Eire 
Avoir • 



To Be 
INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 

ti 
PAST. 



(Affirmatively.) 



to have been 



PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

Etant being 

COMPOUND OP THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

Ayant ete having been 





PARTICIPLE PAST. 


Ete 




been 




INDICATIVE. 




PRESENT. 




Je suis 




I am 


tu es 




thou art 


il est 




he is 


nous sommes 




we are 


vous etes 




you are 


Us sont 




they are 



108 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



J'Ctais I was 

tu Ctnis thou wast 

il Stmt he was 

nous etions we were 

voustti'Z you wire 

iisitau/it they were 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

Je fus I waa 

( u fui thou wast 

he was 
we wen 

vous / you were 

ils fart nt they were 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall or will 1* 
tu ft r<is thou Bhalt bo 

hfl shall be 
rons wo shall bo 

you Shall bfl 
they shall bo 

CONDITIONAL 



vous ft 



I <>r would bo 
thou ■hooldst bo 
he should i>e 

ild Ixi 

V"!l ^li« .11 1*1 lw» 

they should bo 



TRETEIUT IMMIIIM I I.. 

1 hn\' 
tlimi I; 

li.' has boa 

\w li:i\ .- 1...U 

I Hi i have i»-<'ii 

ilsotU Hi they ha 



T EKBS. 



109 





PLUPERFECT. 


J'amis ete 


I had been 


tu avais ete 


thou hadst been 


il acait ete 


he had been 


nous avions eta" 


we had been 


vous aviez ete 


you bad been 


Us avaient ete 


they had been 




PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 


J'eus ete 


I had been 


tu eus ete 


thou hadst been 


U eut ete 


he had been 


nous eumes ete" 


we had been 


vous eiites ete 


you had been 


Us eurent ete 


they had been 




FUTURE ANTERIOR. 


Jaurai ete 


I shall or will have been 


tu auras ete 


thou shalt have been 


il aura ete 


he shall have been 


nous aurons Ut 


we shall have been 


vous aurez ete 


you shall have been 


Us auront ete 


they shall have been 




CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. 


tTaurais ete 


I should or would have been 


tu aurais ete 


thou shouldst have been 


U aurait ete 


he should have been 


nous aurions ete 


we should have been 


vous auriez etS 


you should have been 


Us auraient ete 


they should have been 




IMPERATIVE. 


Bois 


be [thou] 


qu'il soit 


let him be 


soyons 


let us be 


goyez 


be [you] 


qu'ils soient 


let them be 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 




PRESENT. 


Que je sois 


that I may be 


que tu sois 


that thou mayeat be 



110 



ON THE TARTS OF SPEECH. 



qu'il suit 
que no"s 

! soyez 
au'Ua i 



fusse 
nisses 

qn"J f'lt 

I 



qn,- tuai 



that he may be 
that we may ho 
that y.>u may be 
that they may ho 

PLUPERFECT. 

that I might be 
that thou mightest be 
that he aright be 
that we might be 
thai you might be 
that they might be 

PKHTBKTI iMM.iiMTK. 

that I may haw been 

that thou mayest have hern 

that he may have been 

that we may haw been 

that you may have been 
that th< y may have bei a 



1 
■ 



I-I.i PI EU I ' T. 

that 1 might haw been 
tlmt thon Brightest bays been 
that in' might have been 
that we might haw been 

that ynii mi^lit haw U'l'n 

that they might have been 



''. 



To Bt (A'..; 

INTIMTIVK. 

not tn be 
not tn have been 
not being 



VERBS. 



m 



COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

N'ayant pas We not having been 

INDICATIVE. 



Je ne suis pas 
tu n'es pas 
il n'est pas 
nous ne sommes pas 
vous rtetes pas 
Us ne sont pas 



Je n'etais pas 
tu n'etais pas 
U n'etait pas 
nous n'etions pas 



Us n'etaient ■ 



I am not 
thou art not 
he is not 
we are not 
you are not 
they are not 

IMPERFECT. 

I was not 
thou wast not 
he was not 
we were not 
you were not 
they were not 



TRETERIT DEFINITE. 

Je ne fus pas I was not 

tu ne fus pas thou wast not 

U ne fut pas he was not 

nous ne fumes pas we were not 

vous ne fates pas you were not 

Us ne furent pas they were not 



FUTURE. 



Je ne serai pas 
tu ne seras pas 
ii ne sera pas 
nous ne serous pas 
vous ne serez pets . 
Us ne seront pas 



Je ne serais pas 
tu ne serais pas 



I shall or will not be 
thou shalt not be 
he shall not be 
we shall not be 
you shall not be 
they shall not be 



CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT, 



I should or would not be 
thou shouldst not be 



112 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

U ne serait pas he should not be 

nous ne serious pas we should not be 

nous ne sericz pas you should not be 

Us ne seraieut pas they should not be 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

Je n'ai pas ete I have not been 

tu n'as pas Hi thou hast not been 

ii n'ii | he has not been 

turns n'dtxmt pus iii we have not been 

cons it'n nee p you have not been 

Us no at pas Cti they have not been 

PLUPERFECT. 

I had not been 
tu n' thou hadat not been 

ho had not been 
nous we had not been 

vous it' yon bad noi been 

they bad not born 

preterit anterior. 
Je PI ] had BOi been 

tu n'tiis pas Hi thoa hadst aol been 

n'( he bad not i><'«'n 

■ Hi we had aol been 

yon ha ! d >t li '--n 
they had not been 

•wuju aramon, 

■ / ' I shall or will not have been 

tli. .11 shall nut hare been 
be thai! aol have been 

I :,',i>iri>nx pas Hi we -hall not bave 1 n 

' • ■< Y..U shall ri'>t hav. 

Us n'n tneyahall aol have boea 

I ehoold "/• would not haw been 
thoa ihouldsi aol have been 
been 



VERBS. 



113 



nous n aunons pas et 
vous n'auriez pas ete 
U n'auraient pas ete 



we should not have been 
you should not have been 
they should not have been 



Ne sois pas 
qu'il ne soitpas 
ne soyons pas 
ne soyez pas 
qu'ils ne soient pas 



IMPERATIVE. 

be not [thou] 
let him not be 
let us not be 
be not [you] 
let them not be 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Que je ne sois pas 
que tu ne sois pas 
qu'il ne soit pas 
que nous ne soyons pas 
que vovs ne soyez pas 
qu'ils ne soient pas 



Que je ne fusse pas 
que tu ne fusses pas 
qu'il ne fat pas 
que nous ne fussions pas 
que vous nefussiez pas 
qu'ils ne fussent pas 



that I may not be 
that thou mayest not be 
that he may not be 
that we may not be 
that you may not be 
that they may not be 

IMPERFECT. 

that I might not be 
that thou mightest not be 
that he might not be 
that we might not be 
that you might not be 
that they might not be 



PRETERIT Of PAST. 

Quejen'aiepas lie 
que tu n'aies pas ilte 
qu'il n'ait pas ete 
que nous n'ayons pas ete 
que vous n'ayez pas ete 
qu'ils n'aient pas ete, 



that I may not have been 
that thou mayest not have been 
that he may not have been 
that we may not have been 
that you may not have been 
that they may not have been 



Queje n'eussepas ete 
que tu n'eusses pas ete 
qu'il n'eut pas ete 



PLUPERFECT. 

that I might not have been 

that thou mightest not have been 

that he might not have been 



1H 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



que nous ri'eusaiona pas etc 
que co us n'eussies pas eti 
qu'ile n'eusscnt pas Ste 



that we might not have been 
that you might not have been 
that they might not have been 



Etri 



To Be {Interrogatively.') 

INDICATIVE. 





FBBSffirr. 




am I 




art thou 




is he 


! nous 


are we 




you 


SOIlt-US 


are they 




IMl'l / 








llii'U 


ttait tt 


- lie 


■>us 


m r - \\" 




yon 


t Us 


were they 




MTl 








thou 




- ho 


<<nu 


• we 




ynll 


t Ms 


m N iln-y 








shall or will I be 




'■ thou l"' 




shall he be 




vre be 




shall yoa ' 8 







VERBS. 



n, 



CONDITIONAL 



Serais-je 


should or would I bo 


serais-tu 


shouldst thou be 


serait-il 


should he be 


serions-nozo8 


should we be 


seriez-vous 


should you be 


seraient Us 


should they be 




PIIETERIT INDEFINTE. 


Av-je ete 


have I been 


as-tu ete 


hast thou been 


a-t-il ete 


has he been 


avons-nous ete 


have we been 


avez-vous ete 


have you been 


ont-ils ete 


have they been 




PLUPERFECT. 


Avais-je Ue 


had I been 


avais-tu ete 


hadst thou been 


avait-U ete 


had he been 


avions-nous ete 


had we been 


aviez-vous ete 


had you been 


avaient-ils ete 


had they been 




PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 


Eus-je ete 


had I been 


eus-tu ete 


hadst thou been 


eut-il ete 


had he been 


eHmes-nous ite 


had we been 


eutes-vous ete 


had you been 


eurent-ils ete 


had they been 




FUTURE ANTERIOR. 


Aurai-je ete 


shall or will I have been 


auras-tu tie" 


shalt thou have been 


aura-t-il ete 


shall he have been 


aurons-nous ete 


shall we have been 


aurez-vous ete 


sball you have been 


auront-ils ete 


shall they have been 



116 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. 

i ete should or would I have been 

auraU-tn tte shouldst tliou have beeD 

aurnit-il ete should he have been 

awrionfrnow He should we have been 

anri€z-C"H* Cte should you have been 

auraknt-ila ete shotild they have been 



Etre To Be (Negatively and Interrogatively^ 

INDICATIVE. 



Ne 8iti*-jc pas 
pat 

Tie sont i 



■ 

rtc fust 

J 

!,<■ /'!>■< Ill 



• 



l'KKSKXT. 

am I not 
art thou not 
is he not 
are we not 
an- you not 
utv thoy not 

DOTBV» T. 

was I not 

waM thou not 

waa be n<>t 
wan wa not 
ireia jrou not 
ware they not 

i I'lriNm:. 
was I not 
wast thou not 
U M he not 
wan we not 
were 70a not 

t h»-y not 
FUTl'Ki:. 

nhall or will 1 not l* 
hliait I In m D 

In- not be 



VERBS. 



117 



ne serons-nous pas 
ne serez-wus pas 
ne seront-ils pas 



iT<? serais-je pas 
ne serais-tu pas 
ne serait-il pas 
ne serions-nous pas 
ne seriez-vous pas 
ne seraient-ils pas 



shall we not be 
shall you not be 
shall they not be 



CONDITIONAL. 



should or would I not he 
shouldst thou not be 
should he not he 
should we not he 
should you not be 
should they not be 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

N'airje pas ete have I not been 

n'as-tu pas ete hast thou not been 

n'a-t-ilpas ete has he not been 

n'avons-nous pas ete have we not been 

n'avez-vous pas ete have you not been 

n'ont-ils pas ete have they not been 



ITavais-je pas ete 
n'avais-tu pas ete 
n'avait-il pas ete 
n'avions-nous pas el 
n'aviez-vous pas ete 
n'avaient-ils pas ete 



If'eus-je pas ete 
n'eus-tu pas ete 
n'eut-il pas ete 
n'eumes-nous pas ete 
n'eutes-vous pas ete 
n'eurent-ils pas ete 



PLUPERFECT. 

had I not been 
hadst thou not been 
had he not been 
e had we not been 

had you not been 
had they not been 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

had I not been 
hadst thou not been 
had he not been 
had we not been 
had you not been 
had they not been 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



N'aurai-je pas ete 
n'aurav-tu pns He 



shall or will I not Lave been 
shalt thou not have bean 



US OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

n'aura-tH pas cte shall lie not have been 

n'aurons-nous pasete shall we not have been 

n'aun zoous pas cte shall you not have been 

tlfawronPiU p shall they not have been 

CONDITIONAL PAST. 

(should I not have been, or would 
JfTmratoje pas ete j r might 1 QQt have w 

n'avrais-tu pas tte shouhlst thou not have been 

n'aun should he not have been 

should we not have been 
should you not have been 
7i \i s ftt should they not have been 

EZKROISX. 

lie is my friend and ho was yours ; why is he now your enemy T 

a in ili-- house with me, whilst you have been in the 

garden. Wherehave they been? Were you content with yonr lot, 

iuld you be happier elsewhere ? 1 know that I would be most 

ni;!i yon. Be hoped that die might have been wiser, but she 

.-ty, and thai waa her misfortune \\ here were you, when 

church ? We were all in the open square, where there 

my. Bad they been in the country, when they were 

with j uciently attentive. Vmi would 

been more fortunate if you had been leas bold In your speeu* 

dd have been hen before this, 

-..TV weak. 



What n great man he would have been, if he hud been as wise as 
.■: Shall I not have been too severe with my young 
friendi Id have been leas surprised if they had had 

beautiful in her youth? Shall « 
sr, and will he not have had amusement &um oui 
i,,,,,.,- bad n-i been long in this country, when ha 

1, : „1 : ear. Who has bad it yesterday ! V 

have I ' I ' ■ : 

Let them eot be angry ; it wi - I. who did it.an I I am sorry 
Let herb " ne ia 



verbs 1 ; 9 

Note. — When the subject of a question is a noun, it is placed at the 
bead of the sentence, and the verb in the interrogative form after it. 
Ex. This man, has lie courage ? Get homme o>t-il da courage ? 

Exercise. 

"Was this woman with you here, or were you alone ? Would not 
the judge be very severe if he were president of the court? Were 
those girls idle or were they tired ? They have been the one and 
the otber. Will this week have been a happy (one) for you? It 
would have been better, if it had been shorter. Had these soldiers 
been absent from the army ? They had been on furlough. Were the 
apples ripe ? You have been very polite, but I wished that you might 
have been more circumspect. I hope that you may be happy. • Was 
not your birthday yesterday? Where had these three men been 
during the night ? 



The verb to do, when used as an auxiliary verb in 
is not translated into French, but rendered by the simple form 
of the verb itself. 

Ex. I do speak: I speak, je parle. Do I speak? parle-je? 
He did come : he came, il venait. Did he come? venait-il? 
You did say: you said, vous dites. Did you say, dites-vous ? 

In like manner the verb to be, when used as an auxiliary 
in English with the Participle Present, is not translated into 
French, but rendered by the simple verb. 

Ex. I was reading : I read, je lisais. She was walking : she 
walked, elle se promenait. You were snoring : you snored, vous 
ronfliez. 

In the Interrogative form of all verbs the third person singu- 
lar requires, when it ends in a vowel, the insertion of the letter 
t, preceded and followed by a hyphen, to prevent the hiatus 
with the initial vowels of il, elle and on. 

Ex. a-t-il, has he ? a t-elle, has she ? a-t-on, have they ? parle-t-il, 
does he speak? songe-t-elle, does she dream ? 

In the Negative form of the verb, the negative invariably 



120 OX THE PAHT8 OF SPEECH. 

consists of two parts, the Negative Adverb pan, point, etc., and 
the particle ne. The verb is placed between the two, so that 
ne stands before it ; in compound tenses the auxiliary is the 
verb, not the participle. 

Ex. je parte, I speak ; je ne parte pas, I speak not ; elle est 
la, elle ttest pas la, she is not there; nous am/us <7< ; , nous 
iti', we have not been; elle eut cu, elle n?<sut pat eu, 
she had not had. 

The Conjunctive Pronouns are, however, placed between the 
verb and «<•, standing Dearest to the verb. 

Ex. ji pom,/* m pom pas, je ne le vois pas, I see it not; 
vous avez cu, votu n'atw u ne Care- pas eu, you have 

not bad it; fai '(•',}> ffaipas iU,je n'y at j>as iti, 1 have not 
been I 

In the Infinitive both ne and pas may be placed before the 
verb. 

Ex. M pat 'ill' r, DOt to 

The \ mjngated according to four conjugations, 

which arc distinguished by the termination of the lnfini- 

• 
n en la in er t like parler, to speak. 
la in i>, like servir, to Berve. 
Third Con] la in >«r, like recevoir, to re- 

The Fourth CoDJugatioD eoda in re\ like vendre, to sell. 
After catting off the Infinitive termination, there remains 
what is called the root ofthe?erb,e.o\jwW - t strt — t recev — and 

ttaio terminations, which constituto 

the coDJogatioo of the verb. Borne of these are uniform. 

The PartidpU I I in ant, added to the root 

of the \cil-, or in the second conjugation, to the first person 

riant, speaking , finmant, finishing ; reccvant, receiving; 
i it, -lling. 



VERBS. 121 

The Imperfect ends always in ais, added to the root of the 
verb, or in the second conjugation, to the first person present. 

Ex. je parlais, I spoke ; je fiaissais, I finished ; je recevais, I 
received ; je vendais, I sold. 

The Future ends always in rai, and is made from the Infinitive. 

Ex. je parlerai, I shall speak ; je seruirai, I shall serve ; je 
recevrai, I shall receive; je vend rai, I shall sell. 

The Conditional ends always in rais, and is made by adding 
3 to the Future. 

Ex. je parlerais, I should speak ; je servirais, I shall serve ; 
je recevrais, I should receive; je vendrais, I should sell. 

The First Person Plural ends always in ons, except in the 
Preterit Definite, when it always ends in silent mes. 

Ex. nous parlons, we speak ; nous parlions, we spoke ; nous 
parlerons, we shall speak; nous parlerions, we should speak; 
but nous parlames, we did speak. 

The Second Person Plural ends always in ez, except in the 
Preterit Definite, where it always ends in silent t s. 

Ex. vous servez, you serve ; vous serviez, you served ; vous ser- 
virez, you will serve ; vous serviriez, you would serve ; but vous 
servitea, you did serve. 

The Third Person Plural ends always in silent ent, except in 
the Future, where it always ends in out. 

Ex. Us recoivent they receive; Us recevaient, they received; 
Us rccurent, they received ; Us recevraient, they would receive ; 
but Us recevront, they will receive. 

The Moods of the French Verb are the following: 

1. The Infinitive is simply the name of the verb, and has 
neither person nor number. 

Ex. chanter, to sing ; perdrc, to lose. 

2. The Indicative states the action of the verb positively, and 
may do so in the past, present, or future. 

Ex. je chanle, I sing; je perdais, I lost; je recus, I received; 
firai, I shall go. 



123 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

3. The Subjunctive states the action of the verb contingently, 
». c. subject to some other verb. Hence it is always preceded 
by the conjunction que, which connects it, with the verb on 
which it depends. This conjunction (that) may be omitte<l in 
English, but must always be added in French. 

Ex. Je desire quil vienne, I wish that he conu; il voulait 
(jne je le fisse, he wished (that) I should do it ; plat a Dieu 
gu'ellefUt id, would to God that she were here. 

4. The Conditional states the action of the verb as likely to 
happen under a condition, so that «", if, is always understood, 
if not i 

Ex. J'n-'iis sijepouvais, I would go if I could; scriezvoiu 
cant* m f would yon be satisfied .' (if. . . ) vous auric.-: des amis, you 
would haw tiiends. 

.".. '11 s tin' action >>( the verb in the tone 

of command, entreaty, wish or permission. 

let him come ! alluns .' let lis go ! ■, 
/assent s'ito r.n/.nt, let them do it if they wish. 

It will be seen that the English Imperative requires, in most esses, 
the auxiliary verb Cat, which is not translated in French, the Im- 
perative in 1 already OX] C 'lniiKiiil or permission. 

The Tei f the Verb are either Simple, when they are 

made of tin- verb itself, or Compound, when they are formed 
by the aid of the auxiliary '■■ and Eire. 

The Simpi.i. Tkksbs are the following: 

INDICATIVE Moon. 

1. Th' - ends in r, \, or z, 

•j. The Imperfect^ which a waya enda in ais, expresses a past 
action, continued or frequently repeated. 

The Ebgttsh employa tor th- same purpose tin' auxiliary I vued to, 
whieh la aol Into French, as tin- Imported 

aln-n ly gives tliis m< 

Y.\. 1 used to sleep: I slept, J* dormaii. 11<- Dead to &ni"ke: he 
smoked, il fum-iit. 



VERBS. 123 

3. The Preterit Definite, which ends in the first conjugation 
in ai, in the second in' is, in the third in us, and in the fourth 
in is, expresses a past action which took place but once, and at a 
definite period. It is, therefore, the historical tense of the French. 

Ex. je parlai, I spoke ; il servit alors, he served then ; je 
recus hier, I received yesterday ; nous vendimes lundi, we sold 
out on Monday le rot mourut sur Vechafaud, the king died on 
the scaffold. 

4. The Future, which always ends in rai. 

Ex. je parlerai, I shall speak; firai, I shall go. 

5. The Conditional, which always ends in rais. 

Ex. je vermis, I would see ; je rirais, I would laugh. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

1. The Present, which always ends in a silent e, and is made 
from the Present Indicative. 

Ex. j'ai : que j'aie, that I have ; je recois : que je recoive, 
that I receive. 

2. The Past, which always ends in sse, and is made from the 
Preterit Definite, by changing ai of the first conjugation into 
asse, and by adding in the other three conjugations se to the 
Indicative. 

Ex. je parlai : que je parlasse, that I might speak. 

je servis : que je servisse, that I might serve. 

je recus : que je recusse, that I might receive. 

je vendis : que je vendisse, that I might sell. 
The Compound Tenses are the following : 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

1. The Preterit Indefinite, made from the Present of the 
auxiliary verbs Avoir or Eire, with the Participle Past. 

Ex. fai parle, I have spoken ; je suis alle, I have gone. 

2. The Pluperfect, made from the Imperfect of the auxiliary 
verbs with the Participle Past. 

Ex. j'avais parle, I had spoken ; j'etais alle, I had gone. 



124 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

3. The Preterit Anterior, made from the Preterit Definite 
:f the auxiliary verbs with the Participle Past. 

Ex. feus parte, I had spoken ; je fus alle, I had gone. 

4. The Future Anterior, made from the Future of the aux- 
iliary verbs with the Participle Past. 

Ex. faurai jmrle, I shall have spoken ; je serai alle, I shall 
have gone. 

5. The Conditional Anterior, made from the Conditional of 
the auxiliary verbs, with the Participle Past 

Ex. faurais parte, I would have spoken ; je serais alle, I 
would have gone. 

srnjrxcTiVE mood. 

1. The Prtterii Indefinite, made from the Subjunctive of 
the Present of the auxiliary verbs with the Participle Past. 

Ex. que fait parli, that I mav have Bpoken ; que je sois alle, 
that I may have gone. 

'J. '11 r, male from the Subjunctive of the 

•in- auxiliary verbs with the Participle l'ast. 

Ex. q bat [ might have spoken ; que je /asm 

at I might have ^■<u<\ 

In the following tables <>f Verbs the termination is separal 
the root, in order t<> show mors clearly i!i" manner of c mjagating 
verbs; such a si-|iunitinn does not take place, of course, in ordinary 
writing, when verb unl root am written in one word. 



TABLB OF THE T .ILAIl VEKBS. 

T 

INTIMTIVK MOOD. 

nan r, 

IstConj'n. 2.1 ('nnj. 8d C'onj. 4th OonJ. 

pari er fin ir ret svotf id re 

PABTS rii 

part ant evant I ant 

l-AKir nil. r\sr. 

part e fin i r< >; u rend n 









VERBS. 






] 






INDICATIVE MOOD. 












PRESENT. 








Je 


pari 


! e 


fin is 


rec 


ois 


vend s 


tu 




es 


is 




ois 


8 


il or elk 




e 


it 




oit 


vend 


nous 




ons 


issons 




evons 


ons 


vous 




ez 


issez 




evez 


ez 


Us or elles 




ent 


issent 

IMPERFECT. 




oivent 


ent 


Je 


pari 


ais 


fin issais 


ree 


evais 


vend ais 


tu 




ais 


issais 




evais 


ais 


il or eUe 




ait 


issait 




evait 


ait. 


nous 




ions 


issions 




evions 


ions 


vous 




iez 


issiez 




eviez 


iez 


Us or elles 




aient 


issaient 




evaient 


aient 



125 



Je 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



pari ai fin is 



rec us 



vend is 



il or elle 




a 


nous 




ames 


vous 




ates 


Us or elles 




erent 


Je 


pari 


FT 

' erai 


tu 




eras 


il or elle 




era 


nous 




erons 


vous 




erez 


Us or elles 




eront 



irent 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

fin irai rec evrai 

iras 
ira 
irons 
irez 
iront 



ut 


it 


umes 


imes 


utes 


ites 


urent 


irent 



evras 


ras 


evra 


ra 


evrons 


rona 


evrez 


rez 


evront 


ront 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PRESENT 



Je 


pari 


erais 


fin irais 


ree 


evrais 


vend 


rais 


tu 




erais 




irais 




evrai s 




rais 


il or elle 




erait 




irait 




evrait 




rait 


nous 




erions 




irions 




evrions 




rions 


vous 




eriez 




iriez 




evriez 




riez 


Us or elles 




eraient 




iraient 




evrai ent 




raier.t 



120 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH, 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
pari e fin is re$ ois 



qu'il or qu'elle 
g'i'ils or qu'eUes 



ent 



lESons 

issez 

issent 



evez 
oiveut 



Queje 
que tn 
qu'il or 5 

y«'#* or 



j; jrJ e 



SUBJUNCTIVE Mool) 
PRESENT. 



KKQfl 

iez 

eut 



Lsse 
issiona 
issdea 
iasent 



IMl'l : 
pari asse _/?/- i-~ ■ 
asses I 

qu'il <>r g At it 

qu, nous 
■ 



/•<$■ oive 
oivea 

(UVB 

evions 

eviex 

oivent 



■ccnd s 






ions 
ies 

cut 



asses 
fit 

ossiong 
assiea 



it 

issiona 

issicz 

[■Bent 









■ 



IN I' IN IT I \' I! Mho I). 
IgtOonj. BdOonj. BdConj. 

Jhi i 
< "\troi m» "i mi PABTS iim.i-.. 

INIH "ATI V B MOOD. 






PRB1 I Kl I !M>I MM I I 



It H <\mj. 

tend u 



nd ■ 

u 



VERBS. 



127 



nouSavons 


pari 


I e 


^« 




reg 


u 


vend u 


was avez 




e 




i 




u 


u 


Us or dies ont 




6 




i 




u 


u 




PLUPERFECT. 








J' avail 


pari 


e 


fin 


i 


rec 


u 


vend u 


tu avais 




e 




i 




11 


u 


il or elk avait 




e 




i 




u 


u 


■nous avions 




e 




i 




u 


u 


vous aviez 




e 




i 




u 


u 


Us or elks avaient 




e 




i 




u 


u 




PRETERIT 


ANTERIOR. 








feus 


pari 


e 


fin 


i 


re$ 


u 


vend u 


tu eus 




e 




i 




u 


u 


il or elk eut 




e 




i 




u 


u 


nous eumes 




e 




i 




u 


u 


vous elites 




e 




i 




XL 


u 


Us or elks eurent 




e 




i 




u 


u 




FUTURE 


ANTERIOR. 








Jaurai 


pari 


e 


fin 


i 


reg 


u 


vend u 


tu auras 




e 




i 




u 


u 


il or elk aura 




e 




i 




U 


u 


nous aurons 




e 




i 




u 


u 


votes aurez 




e 




i 




u 


u 


Us or elks auront 




e 




i 




u 


u 




CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. 






tPaurais 


pari 


e 


fin 


i 


rec 


u 


vend a 


tu aurais 




e 




i 




u 


il 


il or elk aurait 




e 




i 




u 


u 


nous aurions 




e 




i 




II 


u 


vous auriez 




e 




i 




u 


u 


Us or elks auraient 




e 




i 




u 


u 




SUBJUNCTIVE 


MOOD. 










PRETERIT. 








Que fate 


p-wl 


e 


fin 


i 


ree 


u 


vend n 


que tu aies 




e 




i 




u 


u 


qu'il or qu'elk ait 




e 




i 




u 


a 



128 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



que nous ayons 

que vous ayez 

qu'Us or qu'eUes aienl 



pari e fin i 



PRETERIT AXTEKIOR. 



Quefeusse 

que tu cusses 

qu'il or qu'elle cut 

que nous eussions 

que vous eussiez 

qu'ils or qu'elks eussent 



pari ti fin 



rec u 



AY U 



i\/>d 1 
u 



VERBS OF THE FIRST COXJCGATION. 



{Affirmatively.) 



Parler To Speak 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRE.sr.NT. 

. Parler to apeak 

TAST. 

Avoir pari & , to have spoken 

parth in i. FBI D 
Pari ant king 

OOMFOOHB Of Tin. PASTS [PI pki>i.nt. 
A;/int p'irl i having spoken 

PARIS mm I PACT. 

P.irf I ken 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

II: I - 

k, do speak, w an ipeaking 
thou speal 
he spaaka 



Je p'irl e 

- 

U0U$ pari at 

r."/.i p.ir' <•/. 



We speak 
y.iu speak 



VERBS. 



TJD 



Je pari ais 
tu pari ais 
il pari ait 
nous pari ions 
w>tt« pari iez 
tfoparZaient 

Je #ar£ ai 
tu pari a8 
# pari a 
nous pari ames 
»cws £>aW ates 
ilparl erent 

Je _parZ erai 
*w parJ eras 
il pari era 
news ^<wZ 
vousparl erez 
t& #fiwZ eront 



Je pari eraia 

f« ^gwZ erais 
il pari erait 
ntras pari erions 
wus pari eriez 
Us pari eraient 



Jai pari e 

tu as pari e 
# a pari e 
wows awns pari e 
vous avez pari e 
t7s <wi£ parZ e 



I spoke, did speak, or was speaking 

tliou spokest 

he spoke 

we spoke 

you spoke 

they spoke 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

I spoke or did speak 
thou spokest 
he spoke 
we spoke 
you spoke 
they spoke 
FUTURE. 

I shall or will speak 
thou shalt speak 
he shall speak 
we shall speak 
you shall speak 
they shall speak 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

(I should, would, could or might 



thou shouldst speak 
he should speak 
we should speak 
you should speak 
they should speak 

INDEFINITE. 

( I have spoken, did speak or have 
( been speaking 

thou hast spoken 

he has spoken 

we have spoken 

you have spoken 

they have spoken 



130 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



J' amis pari e 
tu (boom pari e 
il avait pad e 
nou6 oBtompari 6 
vtnu avieepari e 
Us ataient pari e 



J"eus pari e 

tu MM , 

nous cu >n, x purl 6 

*& ««n rUp 'il >'■ 

■ I 

tu tlU in* 

nous ounmt 

vous aunz purl G 
Us au, 



FLUPERFB* T. 

I had spoken or had been speaking 

thou kadst spoken 

he had spoken 

we had spoken 

yon had spoken 

they ha.l spoken 

PRETEKIT ANTERIOR. 

I had spoken 
tlioti hadst spoken 
he had spoken 
\v<- had spoken 
j ni had Bpoken 
they had Bpoken 

EUOB. 

I shuU "/• will have sj>okcn 
thou shah have Bpoken 
he Bhall have spoken 
we shall have Bpoken 
yon Bhall have Bpoken 
they Bhall have Bpoken 



J* a u rait 



("NnnioN.vi 

| I Bhould, won] 



notaottrioiu pur! .'• 

• ri z j>url t 
Us mtraitni \ 



OOnld or 

thon Bhooldst have Bpoken 
oken 
ild have spoken 
Mm should have Bpoken 
ken 



might 



pari e 

',"/<• tu j 

I 



sriurNvnvK MOOD. 

PBJ E 

lliat I niav - 
that thou in i\. si 
tliat hf ma] 
that we mi j ipi ak 
that yon may speak 
thai peak 



VERBS. 



V'A 



Que je pari asse 
que tu pari asses 
qu'il pari at 
que nous pari i 
que vous pari assiez 
qu'ilsparl assent 

Que j'aie pari e 
que tu aies pari e 
qu'il ait pari e 
gwe nous ayons pari e 
gwe vous ayez pari e 
gw'j'fe aient pari e 

Que feusse pari e 
gwg iw ewsses par? e 
qu'il eut pari e 
gwe nous eussions pari e 
gwe vous eussiez pari e 
gu'ifc eussent pari e 



IMPERFECT. 

tliat I might speak 
that thou raightest speak 
that he might speak 
that we might speak 
that you might speak 
that they might speak 

PAST. 

that I may have spoken 
that thou mayest have spoken 
that he may have spoken 
that we may have spoken 
that you may have spoken 
that they may have spoken 

PLUPERFECT. 

that I might have spoken 
that thou mightest have spoke 
that he might have spoken 
that we might have spoken 
that you might have spoken 
that they might have spoken 



IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

speak or do speak [thou] 

let him speak 

let us speak 

speak or do speak [you] 

let them speak 



Pari e 
qu^il pari e 

pari ons 

pari ez 
qu'ils pari ent 

Parler To Spealc. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Ne pas pari er not to speak 

PAST. 

N avoir pas pari e not to have spoken 

PARTIdPLE PRESENT. 

Nr- pari ant pas not speaking 



{Negatively.) 



132 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

N' ay ant pas pari e not having spoken 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

( I speak not, do not speak or am 



Je ne pari e pas 

tu ne pari es pas 

trie pas 
nous ne purl ons pas 
BOttf TU jiarl cz pas 
pari ent pas 



< irl ais pas 

ir' ais pas 
■r' ait pat 

noun ne par! irms/>a.t 

I 

:.t pat 



< not speaking 
thou speakest not 
he Bpeaks not 
we speak not 
you speak not 
they Bpeak not 



lilPKKl 1( T. 



1 1 spoke not, did not speak or wan 
! do! speaking 

thou spokest not 

he spoke not 

we Bpoke oot 

you spoke not 
ke not 



PRBTERIT DEFINITE. 



1/ it. pari a 

rent pas 



I sj>okr imt or did not speak 
thou spoked not 

In- s[K,k,- not 
W6 s|«ik.' not 
you spoke not 
they spoke not 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



J i -a\ pa* 

I 

■ 

re* pat 

tat pas 



I shall »r will nut Bpeak 
thou shalt nnt sjM-ak 

I n .t Bpeak 

We shall li"t Bpeak 

you shall in>t Bpeak 
they shall not *|><-:ik 



Jc n t pari era is pat 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 
PHI - 

\ I BhouJ !. would, could or might 



VERBS. 



133 



tu ne pari erais pas 
il ne pari erait pas 
nous ne pari enomipas 
vous ne pari eriez pas 
Us ne pari eraient pas 



thou sliouldst not speak 
lie should not speak 
we sliould not speak 
you should not speak 
they should not speak 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 



Je n'ai pas pari e 

tu n'as pas pari e 
il n'a pas pari e 
nous n'avons pas pari e 
vous n'avez pas pari e 
Us n'ont pas pari e 



( I have not spoken, did not speak, 
{ or have not been speaking 

thou hast not spoken 

he has not spoken 

we have not spoken 

you have not spoken 

they have not spoken 



Je ri 'avals pas pari e 

tu n'avais pas pari e 
il n'avait pas pari e 
nous n'avions pas pari e 
■oous n'aviez pas pari e 
Us n'avaient pas pari e 



PLUPERFECT. 

( I had not spoken or had not been 



thou hadst not spoken 
he had not spoken 
we had not spoken 
you had not spoken 
they had not spoken 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 



Je n'eus pas pari e 
tu n'eus pas pari e 
il n'eut pas pari e 
nous n'eitmes pas pari e 
vous n'eiiles pas pari e 
Us n'eurent pas pari e 



I had not spoken 
thou hadst not spoken 
he had not spoken 
we had not spoken 
you had not spoken 
they had not spoken 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



Je n'aurai pas pari e 
tu n' auras pas pari e 
U n'aura pas pari e 
nous n'aurons pas pari e, 
vous n'aurez pas pari e 
Us n'auront pas pari e 



I shall or will not have spob^-u 
thou shalt not have spoken 
he shall not have spoken 
we shall not have spoken 
you shall not have spoken 
they shall not have spokes 



134 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Jen'aurais pas pari e 

tu n'aurais pas pari e 
il it'aurait pas pad e 

-■'/'/ ri'His p,is purl e 
ixnis n'auritz pas purl e 
ils n'auraient pas pari e 



', e pas 

que tu iir pari i - 

qn'il TU /"'/ ' ■■ 

fj,ir nous n, pari ionsjMH 

■ pitrl iez P'ts 



PAST. 

{ I should, would, could or might not 

1 have spoken 
thou shouldst not have spoken 
he should not have spoken 
■we should not have sjwken 
yon should not have spoken 
they should not have spoken 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

I'KI.-l \ I. 

that I may not speak 
that thou mayest not speak 
that he may not Bpeak 
that we may not speak 
that yon may not speak 
that they may not Bpeak 



b pat 

■ 
5 

qu'Ue n<- pari assent 



- j hirl t 

i; 



wri:i;iT.i r. 

that I might not speak 
that thon mightest not speak 
that lie might not speak 
that we might t » < > t speak 
that yon might not Bpeak 
that they might not speak 

eABT. 

that I may not ha v.- spoken 

that thon mayest not have spoken 
that he may not have Bpokea 
that we may not have spoken 
that you may not have spoken 
that they may not have spoken 



out tun' 

■ 
■ 

, ■ ri 4 



PLUPERl 

that I ml 'ht not have spoken 
that thon mightest not have spoken 
that he mij b< not bave spoken 
that we mighl not have - 
that y« ii might not have spoken 
might not have • 



VERBS. 



135 



JTe pari e pas 
gu'il ne pari e pas 
ne pari ons pas 
ne pari ez pas 
qu'ils ne pari ent pas 



IMPERATIVE. 

speak not or do not speak [thou] 

let him not speak 

let us not speak 

speak not or do not speak [you] 

let tliem not speak 



Parler To Speak [Interrogatively.) 

INDICATIVE. 



Pari e-je ? 
pari e&-tu 
pari e-t-U 
pari oriB-nous 
pari ez-vous 
pari ent-ils 



do I speak or am I speaking 

dost thou speak 

does he speak 

do we speak 

do you speak 

do they speak 



Pari ais-je 
pari aia-tu 
pari ait-i'£ 
pari ions-nous 
pari iez-vous 
pari aient-i7s 



Pari ai-je 
pari &s-tu 
pari a-t-il 
pari simes-nous 
pari ates-vous 
pari erent-ils 



Pari evol-je 
pari eras-ta 
pari exa-t-il 
', arl erons-nous 



did I speak or was I speaking 

didst thou speak 

did he speak 

did we speak 

did you speak 

did they speak 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

did I speak 
didst thou speak 
did he speak 
did we speak 
did you speak 
did they speak 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

shall or will I speak 
shalt thou speak 
shall he speak 
shall we speak 



136 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



pari erez-vous 
pari eiont-ils 



shall you speak 
shall they speak 



CONDITIONAL. 



Pari erais-Je 

pari ersis-tu 
pari erait-tf 
pari cnons-tioiu 
pari erii i 
;>•»/•/ eraient-tfo 



iii c 

trl •'■ 

i /• • 

■ pari c 
ni u 



tit pari 6 
i paH >'• 



I pari e 



pari c 



t Should, would, could, or might 1 
( speak 

shouldst thou speak 
should he speak 

should we Bpeak 
should you speak 
should they Bpeak 

PIIETEKIT INDKIIN1 Ii:. 

have I spoken or did I speak 
hast tlioii Bpokeo 
bas he spoken 

have wv Spoken 

have yon spoken 
bare they b 



rLun.Ki ; 

(had I spoken or hai 

( in- 

hadsl tbou Bpokeo 
bad he -;*>ki'n 
had we b\ i 
bad yon Bpokea 
had they spoken 

PRETERIT ANTKUlolt. 

had I spoken 
hadsl thon 
had ha niM.k.n 

liad we spoktfll 

had yon spoken 
had they spoken 



I ANT! RlOn. 

shall i will I liave 



I been sj>cak 






137 



uuva-t-il pari e 
aurons-nous pari i 
aurez-vous pari e 
auront-ils pari e 



Aurais-je pari e 

aurais-tu pari e 
aurait-il pari e • 
aitrions-novs pari e 
auriez-vous pari e 
auraient-ils pari e 



sliall lie have spoken 
shall we have spoken 
shall you have spoken 
shall they have spoken 

PAST. 

j should, would, could, or might 

{ have spoken 
shouldst thou have spoken 
should be have spoken 
should we have spoken 
should you have spoken 
should they have spoken 



Parler To Speak {Negatively and Interrogatively.) 

INDICATIVE. 



Ne pari e-je pas 

ne pari es-tu pas 
ne pari e-t-il pas 
ne pari ons-nous pas 
ne pari ez-vous pas 
ne pari ent-ils pas 



Ne pari ais-je pas 

ne pari ais4?f pas 
ne pari axt-il pas 
ne pari ions-nous pas 
ne pari iez-vous pas 
ne pari a.ient-ils pas 



Ne pari el-je pas 
ne pari as,-tu pas 
ne pari a-tilpas 



j do I not speak or am I not speak- 
'. hig 

dost thou not speak 

does he not speak 

do we not speak 

do yo\i not speak 

do they not speak 



IMPERFECT. 



j did I not speak or was I not speak- 
t ing 

didst thou not speak 

did he not speak 

did we not speak 

did you not speak 

did tliey not speak 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

did I not speak 
didst thou not 
did he not speak 



138 



OX THE TARTS OF SPEECH. 



ne pari HmeB-nous pas 
m purl SteB-wms pas 
ne pari eient-to pas 



did we not speak 
did you not speak 
did they not speak 



JV7 pari ersl-je pas 
7iq pari eras-tu pas 
I er&-t-il pas 
7" pari erons-/(-"/.« pas 
m pari etea^wus pat 
tu pari eront-tfs pas 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

shall or will 



not speak 
shalt thou not Bpeak 
shall he not Bpeak 
shall we not speak 
shall vim not speak 
shall they not Bpeak 



CONDITIONAL. 



■ 

ra - tu pat 



[ should, would, could, or might I 
I nol Bpeak 

1st thou not speak 

slii old he not Bpeak 

should we nol Bpeak 

Bhould you ii"! Bpeak 

Bhould they not B] 



iki.ii kit iM-i.i im i •;:. 



• ri 6 

■ 



\ 

■ 



(have I u"! Bpoken, did I oot speak, 

I or have I do! I n speaking 

■ 

p •k'ii 
have we M >t spokon 
nol Bpoken 
have they not Bpoken 



plup: i 



(had I ii"' Bpoken or had I not bm 

hadst thou not Bpoken 
had he i. A spoken 

had they cot spoken 



VEEBS. 



139 



IT&us-je pas pari e 
n'eus-tu pas pari e 
n'eut-il pas pari e 
n'edmes-nous pas pari e 
ri 'eutes-vous pas pari e 
n'eurent-ils pas pari e 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

had I not spoken 
hadst thou not spoken 
had he not spoken 
had we not spoken 
had you not spoken 
had they not spoken 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



N'aurai-je pas pari e 
n'auras-tu pas pari e 
n'aura-t-il pas pari e 
n'aurons-nous pas pari e 
n'aurcz-wus pas pari e 
n'auront-ils pas pari e 



shall or will I not have spckL-n 
shalt thou not have spoken 
shall he not have spoken 
shall we not have spoken 
shall you not have spoken 
shall they not have spoken 



ft'aurais-je pas pari e 

n'aurais-tu pas pari e 
n'aurait-il pas pari e 
n' aurions-nous pas pari t 
n'auriez-vous pas pari e 
n'auraient-ils pas pari e 



j should, would, could, or might I 

( not have spoken 
shouldst thou not have spoken 
should he not have spoken 
should we not have spoken 
should you not haA^e spoken 
should they not have spoken 



REMARKS OK VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

There are several general principles applied in French to all 
verbs, which seriously affect their orthography. 

The first is : The pronunciation of the root of a verb in the 
Infinitive must be preserved throughout its conjugation. 

Consequently the verb, when conjugated, will have to be so 
spelt as to produce the sound of the Infinitive, whatever may 
be the termination that is added to the root. The verb percer, 
e. g. pronounces its root perc in the Infinitive with a soft c, 
because it is followed by e ; in forming the Present Participle, 
the syllable ant has to be added to the. root. Thus the vowel a 
would follow c, perc-ani, and as c before a has the sound of k, 



140 OiS THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

the Participle would sound differently from the Infinitive. This 
is not admissible, and, to avoid it, the orthography of the verb 
must be so changed, as to produce before ant also the soft r, 
which, in this case, is done by adding a cedilla and writing the 
Participle per^ant. Hence the following roles : 

1. Verbs ending in eer in the Infinitive add a cedilla to c, 
whenever, in the course of the conjugation, it comes to stand 
before a or o. 

Ex. annonccr 

QGPEBFBI T. 

J' an nnn poft 
t't an 

il annonfaU 

nous annonciona (no cedilla Deeded before i.) 
tout " " " 

■ mongaUmt 

I El i l'l.i: ntBBEHT. 

I i in r it.i'imte. 
J'nii 
tit Of! 

%1 hi. 

ils on no oedilla Deeded U-foid e.) 

BTO.M N( TIM-. 

Qui- , etc. 

•j. V( rba ending in £*r in the Infinitive, insert ■ mote i After 
o, whenever it comei to Btaod before a or o. 

Ex. ntglt gtr . 

FBI si.nt. 



VEKI3S. 



m 



nous negligeons (e inserted) 
vous negligez 
Us negligent 

IMPERFECT. 

Je negligeais 

tu negligeais 

il negligeait 

nous 

vous 

Us nigligeaient 

PARTICIPLE PRESENT, 



(no e needed before i) 
( " " ) 



A second general principle of this kind, which finds its 
application here, and influences the orthography of the verb, is 
this: 

Two mute e's cannot follow each other in successive syllables. 
Hence the following rules : 

Verbs which have a mute e in the penultimate svllable of 
the Infinitive, change their spelling whenever the termination 
contains also a mute e, in two ways : 

1. Some verbs double the consonant between the two e's. 



Ex. jeter. 
Present. 



Future. 



Es. appeler. 



Je jette 

tu jettes 

il jette 

nous jetons \ no double t is required, because no mute 



vous jetez S 
Us jettent 
Je jetterai 
tu jetteras 
il jettera 
nous jetterons 
vous jetterez 
Us jetteront 

Present. 



is added. 



Cond. Je jetterais 
tu jetterais 
il jetterait 
nous jetterions 
vous jetteriez 
Us jetteraient 



JappeMe 
tu appclles 



U2 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



il appelle 

nous appclons (no double I required | 



Future. 



Tons appckz ( 

. ', nt 

i 

^'/ uppilleras 
'4 ra 

■ 

peBaree 



Cond. J'appelleraU 
t>t a/ppdk rais 
U appeUt rait 
nousappi ' 

ri - 
Ba appellerait nt 



ier verba of this class place a Grave Accent over the 
first mute '■, whenever it ie followed by a Becond mute t, 

Ex. a 

Prbbkht. ./' ■'•■' 



',-7, 

tout a 
Utaoh 
Bi M 









• '' 



n o accent required.) 

( ■• '• ) 

Si v.j. I'm- ' 

ij'n tu acti 

que nous acheti 

7'/'i7.i aeh&tcni 



■ nt required.) 



COND. •/ 

:;. Verba wbicfa b :ent on the - is the pen- 

nltimate bj llafa 
whenever t : . • taiun a mnt 





VEEES. 


Ex. esperer. 




Presext. 


Jespere 




tu esperes 




il espere 




nous esperons (no change of accent.) 




vous esperez ( " " ) 




Us esperent 


Future. 


Jespererai 


Cond. 


J'espererais 



143 



Subj. Pres. Que j' espere 



Ex. 



Present. Je revile 

Future, Je revelerai 

Cond. Je revelerais 

Subj. Pres. Queje revele 
This same principle, that two mute e's cannot follow each other 
In successive syllables, has also this effect, that when the first person 
of the Present ends in mute e and is followed in the Interrogative 
construction by je, which has also a mute e, the final e of the verb 
takes an accute accent. 

Ex. je parle: parle-jef do I speak? j 'espere: espere-je? do I hope? 

A third general principle of this kind, which influences the 
orthography of the verb, is this : 

The letter j cannot be placed before mute e. Hence the fol- 
lowing rule : 

Verbs which end in yer (ayer, eyer, oyer and uyer) change 
y into i, whenever it conies to stand before a mute e. 

Ex. essayer. 

Present. Jessaie 
tu essaies 
il essaie 

nous essayons (no change needed.) 
vous essayez ( " " ) 

Us essaient 
Future. Jessaierai nous essaierons 

tu essaieras vous essaierez 

U essaiera Us essaiermt 



U4 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Coxb. JTessaurais 
tu essaieraU 
U essaie rait 

LUPERATIYE. 



Ex. cmpln/'T. 

PasEsrr 



nous essaierums 
naus essaieriez 
Us essaieraient 



Essaie 
gu'il essaie 
essayons 
exsaycz 
qu'ils essaient 



TemphAe 
tu einploies 
il em. 

• mployoru (no chango needed.) 
rous empl"i/cz ( '• " ) 

ttt <mi>l"i< tit 
Future. J'aitplvurui Oond. JTempMerak 

Siiu. Pbbb. QpaftmpM* 

Finally, verba ending in iter require r\ diaeresis over tlic 
/, which ni.iy be added to the conjugation, in order to 
preserve the separate Bound of the two vowels. 

Ex. | 

lMru:ii<T. ITou* mMont Bubj. Pres. Que notu ealulUnu 

VOUS I ryi/, 

Tlic Irregular Verb* of the Firs! Conjugation are only two, 
r\z. : alter, to g<>, nd w wo yer, to send, which will l>o given 
hereafter. 



VERBS OF Tin: BIOOVC OONJUOATIOV. 

Finir To Finish {Affirmatively.) 

INFINiTIVK MOOD. 

I BH1T , 

Fin ir to finish 

PAST. 

Avoir fin 1 to have fisdahed 



VERBS. 



U5 



PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

Fin issant finishing 

COMPOUND OP THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

Ayant fin i having finished 



PARTICIPLE PAST, 
finished 



Je fin is 
tu fin is 
Ufin it 

nous fin issons 
vous fin issez 
Us fin issent 



Je fin issais 
tu fin issais 
il fin issait 
nous fin : 
vous fin 
Us fin issaient 



Je fin is 
tu fin is 
Ufin it 
nous fin imes 
ww^ ./En. ites 
iEs ./E/i irent 



Je fin irai 
£w fin iras 
£E,/in. ira 
nous fin irons 
®<ras ,/Eti irez 
tfe./iTi iront 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

I finish, do finish or am finishing 

thou finishest 

he finishes 

we finish 

you finish 

they finish 

IMPERFECT. 

I finished, did finish, or was finishing 

thou finishedst 

he finished 

we finished 

you finished 

they finished 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

I finished or did finish 

thou finishedst 

he finished 

we finished 

you finished 

they finished 

FUTURE. 

I shall or will finish 
thou shait finish 
he shall finish 
we shall finish 
you shall finish 
they shall finish 



146 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Je fin irais 

tii fin irais 
il fin irnit 
7?'"'* fin irions 
to(/« ^?n iriea 
ils fin iraient 



Jai fin i 

t>i tu fin i 
Q a fin i 

MM ,/fn i 
B9IM "' 



'"/i i 
tV ii ri tit fin i 

' nujlfl i 
if^N i 



fin i 

f>/ /■ a* fin l 
■ - : n i 

Mfjlfl i 

ils eurent fin i 



J~tiurai fin \ 
(a aunt* fin i 

■ fin i 
n</iM auronsfin I 



CONDITIONAL. 
PRESENT. 

j I should, would, could, or might 
{ finish 

thou shouldst finish 

he should finish 

we should finish 

you should finish 

they should finish 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

(I have finished, did finish, or have 
\ heen finishing 
thou hast finished 
he has finished 
we have Blushed 
you have finished 
they hu .f ii. 

pi. i IFKBF1 K r 

I had finished or had bees finishing 

thou liailst finished 

he had finished 

we had fin 

joa had finished 

they ' llu l finished 

rur.Ti.urr wti RIOB. 

I hail fuii-h' d 
thou had-t finished 

he had finished 
we bad finlahed 
y.m had finished 
they bad finished 

FUTUItE ANTI BBXOB. 

I shall or will have finished 
thou s1k.1i have I'm 
he shall have finished 

wu shall have finished 



VERBS. 



147 



vous aurez fin i 
Us auront fin i 



J'aurais fin i 

tu aurais fin i 
il aurait fin i 
nous aurionsfin J 
vous auriez fin i 
Us auraient fin i 



Que jefin iase 
que tu fin isses 
qu'il fin isse 
que nous fin issions 
que vous fin issiez 
qu'Us fin issent 



Que jefin isse 
que tu fin issea 
gw'iY fin it 

que vous fin issiez 
qu'Us fin issent 

Que f aie fin i 
que tu aies fin i 
qu'il ait fin i 
gwe nous ayonsfin i 
gwe flows ayezfin i 
gu'fe aientfin i 



Quej'eussefini 
que tu eusses fin i 
gu'i7 ew£ ./m i 



you shall have finished 
they shall have finished 

CONDITIONAL PAST. 

( 1 should, would, could, or t ight 

( have finished 
thou shouldst have finished 
he should have finished 
we should have finished 
you should have finished 
they should have finished 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

that I may finish 
that thou mayest finish 
that he may finish 
that we may finish 
that you may finish 
that they may finish 

IMPERFECT. 

that I might finish 
that thou mightest finish 
that he might finish 
that we might finish 
that you might finish 
that they might finish 

PAST. 

that I may have finished 
that thou mayest have finished 
that he may have finished 
that we may have finished 
that you may have finished 
that they may have finished 

PLUPERFECT. 

that I might have finished 
that thou mightest have finished 
that he might have finished 



148 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



que nous eussions fin i 
que vous eussiezfin i 
quits eussent fin i 



Fin is 

jsse 
fin issons 
fin issez 
ni'ils fin issent 



that we might have finished 
that you might have finished 
that they might have finished 

IMPERATIVE. 

finish [thou] 
let him finish 
let us finish 
finish [you] 
let them finish 



FlXIR 

X> pat Jin ir 

fin i 

_\ 

0OXFO1 N 

£ . ' .'"' i 

J, in- fin \spcu 
tu nefin 

t' Hi' fin 

iu ne fin iaBftll 



To Finish {Negatively) 

INFINITIVE. 
l'];i>i.vr. 

n« a to finish 
PAOP. 

not t.. have finished 
PABTK in i: PB1 BED i. 
li.n finishing 

I) <•!■• Tin: PARI I' ni.r. n:r.-i vi. 
i) i>t hu\ ing finished 

INDIOATTVEL 

FBI 

\ I finish not, do iint finish, <<?• nin 
I not finishing 
thou finishesl not 
he finishes not 
we finish not 
. finish not 
finish not 

\ I finished not, ili<l not fiuish, or 
i w.i- qoi finishing 
thou Rnishedst not 



VERES. 



149 



U ne fin issait pas 
nous ne Jin issions pas 
vous ne fin issiez pas 
Us ne fin issaient pas 



Je ne fin is pas 
tu nefin is pas 
il ne fin it pas 
nous ne fin imes pas 
vous ne fin ices pas 
Us m fin irent pas 



he finished not 
we finished not 
you finished not 
they finished not 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



I finished not or did not finish 

thou finishedst not 

he finished not 

we finished not 

you finished not 

they finished not 



Je ne fin irai pas 
tu ne fin iras pas 
U ne fin ira pas 
nous nefin irons pas 
vous ne fin irez pas 
Us ne fin iront pas 



I shall or will not finish 
thou shalt not finish 
he shall not finish 
we shall not finish 
you shall not finish 
they shall not finish 



CONDITIONAL. 



Je ne fin irais pas 

tu ne fin irais pas 
il ne fin irait pas 
nous ne fin irions pas 
vous ne fin iriez pas 
Us ne fin iraient pas 



( I should, would, could, or might 
I not finish 

thou shouldst not finish 

he should not finish 

we should not finish 

you should not finish 

they should not finish 



PKETERIT DEFINITE. 



Je n'ai pas fir 



tu nas pas fin i 
il n'a pas fin i 
nous n'avons pas fin i 
vous 11'avez pas fin i 
Us n'ont pas fin i 



j I have not finished, did not finish, 
[ or have not been finishing 

thou hast not finished 

he has not finished 

we have not finished 

you have not finished 

they have not finished 



150 



ON THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 



Je n' avals pas fin i 

tu n'avals pas fin i 
f. n'avaitpaa fin i 
//. us /I'acions pas fin 
nous n'aviee pas fin i 

Us. n'ataiontpasfin i 



x pas fin i 
-v pas fin i 

now »*( 
txnu n '. 



FLUPERFFr" 

1 1 had not finished, t>?- had not lwt>n 
( finishing 

thou hadst not finished 

he had not finished 

we had not finished 

you had not finished 

they had not finished 

PKKTERIT ANTERIOR. 

I had not finished 
thou hadst not finished 
he had not finished 
we had not finished 
yon had not finished 
they had not finished 



■ it pis fin i 

to n'au • 

1 1 fin i 

Hi n\i'i 



■ ' -fin i 

t'l ll'il'l r 

il it'n a r 

nous n'a 

: 



I rriKi. aBTEBIOB. 

I shall or will not have finished 
thon shall not have finished 
he shall not have finished 
we -had no) have finished 
yon shall not have finished 
they shall not have tin. 

ocerornm u. past. 

•old, would, c raid, or might 
\ not have finished 
thou - bave finished 

• finished 
we should nut have finishe 1 

d >'. bave finic 
the] 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Q ic je nr fin isso />,/.< 
q'i'il in 



PKB81 

that I may not finish 

that thon mayest Dot I'nish 

we may not finish 



VERBS. 



151 



que vous nefin issiez pas 
qu'Us ne fin issent pas 



Queje nefin isse pas 
que tu nefin isses pas 
qu'U nefin it pas 
que nous ne fin issions pas 
que vous nefin issiez pas 
qu'Us ne fin issent pas 

Queje n'aie pas fin i 
que tu n'aies pas fin i 
qu'U n'ait pas fin i 
que nous n'ayons pasfin i 
que vous n'ayez pas fin i 
qu'ils n'aient pas fin i 

Queje n'eusse pas fin i 

que tu n'eusses pas fin i 

qu'U n'eut pas fin i 
que nous n'eussions pas fin i 
que vous n'eussiez pas fin i 
qu'ils n'eussent - 



N~e fin is pas 
qu'U ne fin isse pas 
ne fin issons pas 
nefin issez pas 
qu'ils ne fin issent pas 



that you may not finish 
that they may not finish 

IMPERFECT. 

that I might not finish 
that thou mightest not finish 
that he might not finish 
that we might not finish 
that you might not finish 
that they might not finish 

PAST. 

that I may not have finished 
that thou mayest not have finished 
that he may not have finished 
that we may not have finished 
that you may not have finished 
that they may not have finished 

PLUPERFECT. 

that I might not have finished 
( that thou mightest not have finish 
1 ed 
that he might not have finished 
that we might not have finished 
that you might not have finished 
that they might not have finished 

IMPERATIVE. 

finisii not or do not finish [thou] 

let him not finish 

let us not finish 

finish not or do not finish [you] 

let them not finish 



FlNIR 



To Finish (Interrogatively.) 

INDICATIVE. 



Fin Ss-je 
fin xa-tu 



do I finish or am I finishing 
dost thou finish 



152 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



fin St-il 

fin issons-.now* 

fiu-issez-vous 

fiu issent-ifo 



Fin iBBaaaje 

fin issais -tu 

fin issait-i7 

■ >na-nou.i 
. /.-rout 

fin Lsaaient-tZi 

Fin is-je 
fin Is4u 

fin \nu-s-hout 
fin ttee 

Jin irrntj/.t 

Fin i r . 
jin Irat 

fin Ires 

mt-A 



: :ri7 

/?/i Irioi 

til nt-j/j 



Atjtfin i 

ostufin 1 



does lie finish 
do we finish 
do you finish 
do they finish 

lill'EKFFXT. 

did I finish or was I finishing 

didst thou finish 

did he finish 

did we finish 

did you finish 

did they finish 

FltETElUT DKJUJBUTH. 

di.l I finish 
didst thou finish 
did hfi finish 
did we finish 

did ymi finish 

did they finish 
Ft Tt •i:i:. 

shall or will I finish 
•halt tlnm finish 
shall he finish 
shall we finish 
shall you finish 

shall tiny finish 

HDITIONAL. 

nan bt. 

I would, oonld, or might I 
( fin 

shooldsl thou finish 
should he finish 
. I we finish 
should you finish 
should they finish 

MUBHHn iM'i iimi i:. 

have I finished or did ( finish 
ha-t thou oished 



VEEBS. 



153 



a-t-il fin i 
awns-nous jin i 
avez-vous fin i 
ont-ils fin i 



lias he finished 
have we finished 
have you finished 
have they finished 



PLUPERFECT. 



Avais-je fin i 

avais-tu fin i 
amit-ilfini 
amons-nous fin i 
aviez-vous fin i 
avaient-ils fin i 



(had I finished or had I been 
( finishing 

hadst thou finished 

had he finished 

had we finished 

had you finished 

had they finished 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 



Eus-je fin i 
eus-tu fin i 
eut-il fin i 
etimes-nous fin i 
eutes-vous fin i 
ewrent-ils fin i 



had I finished 
hadst thou finished 
had he finished 
had we finished 
had you finished 
had they finished 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



Aurai-je fin i 
auras-tu fin i 
aura-t-ilfin\ 
aurons-nous fin i 
aurez-vous fin i 
auront-ils fin i 



shall or will I have finished 
shalt thou have finished 
shall he have finished 
shall we have finished 
shall you have finished 
shall they have finished 



CONDITIONAL PAST. 



Aurais-jefini 

aurais-tu fin i 
aurait-il fin i 
aurions-nous fin i 
auriez-vous fin i 
auraient-ils fin i 



j should, would, could, or might I 

( have finished 
shouldst thou have finished 
should he have finished 
should we have finished 
should you have finished 
should they have finished 

7* 



154 



OX THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 



Finir To Finish (Negatively and Interrogatively?) 

INDICATIVE. 



, --je pas 

hi fin \SrtU P' (3 

h, fin it-// /«'.<! 

m fin issons-/«»/.y JXM 
lie Jin \mez~rou$ pas 



JY- fin issaisjf p"* 
in fn in 

Mjfa issirz ri"i.i ]i u 



Jfi fin \~ 

7-- -Jin 
111 I'll I 



7/< Jtfl ll 

7i . y//i ini / i 

)■> fin in-/. r,,i/j» pa9 



r.< _/i;/ ir.. 



do I not finish or am I not fiuishinj 

dost thou not linish 

does he not finish 

do we not finish 

do you not linish 

do they not linish 



IMPKRFI'.CT. 



j did I not finish or was 1 not 
( finishing 

didst thou not finish 

did he not finish 

did we not finish 

did yon nol finish 

did they not finish 

PBETHRXT hi.KiM n:. 

did I not linish 
diilst thou not linish 
did he sot finish 
did we Dot finish 
did yon nol finish 
did they sot finish 

shall or will I not finish 

Shalt thou not finish 

shall he not finish 
Bhall we not finish 
shall you not finish 
shall they not Be 



CONDITIONAL. 



m s ght I not 
i finish 
should?) thou not finish 



VERBS. 



155 



ne fin vc&ii-il pas 
Tie fin irions-/i<?«5 pas 
ne fin iviez-vous pas 
ne fin iraient-^s pas 



sliould lie no finish 
should we not finish 
should you not finish 
should they not finisii 



PRETERIT IXDEFUN'ITE. 



N'ai-jepasfini 

n'as-tu pas fin i 
n'a-t-il pas fin i 
n'avons-nous pas fin i 
n'avez-vous pas fin i 
n'ont-ils pas fin i 



Shave I not finished, did I not 
finish, or have I not been finish- 
ing, 
hast thou not finished 
has he not finished 
have we not finished 
have you not finished 
have they not finished 



PLUPERFECT. 



ITavais-pas fin i 

n'amis-tu pas fin i 
n'avait-il pas fin i 
n'acions-nous pas fin i 
n'aviez-vous pas fin i 
n'avaient-Hs pas fin i 



j had I not finished or liad J not 
( been finishing 

hadst thou not finished 

had he not finished 

had we not finished 

had you not finished 

had they not finished 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 



N^eus-je pas fin i 
n'eus-tu pas fin i 
n'eut-ilpasfin i 
n'eumes-nous pas fin i 
n'eutes-vous pas fin i 
M'eurent-ils pas fin i 



had I not finished 
hadst thou not finished 
had he not finished 
had we not finished 
had you not finished 
had they not finished 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



N'aurai-je pas fin i 
n'auras-t'i pas fin i 
n'aura-t-il pas fin i 
n' aurons-nous pas fin i 
n'aurez-vous pas fin i 
n'auront-ils pas fin i 



shall or will I not have finished 
shalt thou not have finished 
shall he not have finished 
shall we not have finished 
shall you not have finished 
shall they not have finished 



156 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

PAST. 

JTauraisjepas fin i \ should ' woald - could > or nii S ht X 

i not have finished 

n'awrafatu pas fin i Bhooldst thou not have finished 

n'awraitil pas fin i should he not have finished 

n'auriona-notu pa* fin i should we not have finished 

n'auru z-rous pat fin i should you not have finished 

n'auraunt-il* pas fin i should they not have finished. 

REMARKS ON VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 

The majority of those verbs are regular and follow the ter- 
minations of finir. The Irregular Verbs of this conjugation, 
which are very numerous, arc given elsewhere. 



III. — VERHS OF THE THIRD CONJCG ATIO N. 

von; To l; {Affirmatively.) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PB1 BBS P. 

i: ■ t.. n reive 

rtf u to have received 

PABT1 i.i'. PRBBBHT. 

ant receiving 

fUHD Of Tin: PAW tl iri.i: PSBBBXT, 

Ayaut havij 

I'M. in 1 1 • i . i ; PAW. 

received 

[JUDICATIVE MOOD. 
PBBfl 

"i» I reeeive.don Lve,oran r. 

«>is tlmu reo \ 

fl reg «'it l],- r. 



VEEBS. 



157 



nous rec evons 
wus rec evez 
Us rec oivent 



we receive 
you receive 
they receive 



Je rec evais 

tu rec evais 
il rec evait 
nous rec evions 
wus rec eviez 
Us rec evaient 



IMPERFECT. 

j I received, did receive, or was re 
( ceiving 

thou receivedst 

lie received 

we received 

you received 

they received 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



Je rec us 
tu rec us 
il rec ut 
nous rec linies 
wus rec utes 
Us reg ureut 



I received or did receive 

thou receivedst 

he received 

we received 

you received 

they received 



Je rec evrai 
tu rec evras 
il rec evra 
nous rec evrons 
vous rec evrez 
Us rec evront 



I shall or will receive 
thou shalt receive 
he shall receive 
we shall receive 
you shall receive 
they shall receive 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



Je rec evrais 

tu rec evrais 
il rec evrait 
nous rec evrions 
wus rec evriez 
Us rec evraient 



{ I should, would, could, or might 
I receive 

thou shouldst receive 

he should receive 

we should receive 

you should receive 

they should receive 



158 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Jai re? u 
tu as reg u 

il <l Tir u 

nova aions rer u 
voua avee req u 
ils out rtf u 



J'ltvn'x rrr u 
I ;■>•*• U 

U atait req u 
new " i 

a nap u 

f r<v u 



fi < ut raj 11 

I ;•- D 
I /•< fl u 



tT.i'/riii n i n 

fa 0tfftM 

R0tM m r 
totuaurm 

I 



faurait 
tu ourou 

tf» a ur <ii..i,t ?<•-; u 



fketep.it i>~defe\~ite. 

jl have received, did receive, or 
( Lave been receiving 



thou Last received 
lie has received 
■we have received 
you have received 
they have received 

FLUTERFEC T. 

I had received or had been receiving 
thou hadsl r 
he had received 
we had received 
yon had received 

tiny had received 
PBEEKBIT ANTERXOB, 

1 had received 
thou ha lal re ■ dved 
he had received 
we liail received 
yon had received 
tiny had r< c 

1 shall or will have received 
thou Bhalt have received 
he — 1 1 ;i 1 1 have received 
we shall have received 
von shall have received 
tlnv shall have received 

• "\i>m oral 

y I Bhonld, would, could, or might 

/ have n • 
thon shonldsl ha\ 
he should liave received 
we sh >uld 1 nve r oeived 

• c Ived 



VERBS. 



159 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT 



Queje reg oive 
que tu reg oives 
qu'il reg oWe 
que nous rec evions 
que vous rec eviez 
qu'ils reg oivent 



that I may receive 
that tliou mayest receive 
that he may receive 
that we may receive 
that you may receive 
that they may receive 



IMPERFECT. 



Queje reg usse 
que tu reg usses 
qu'il reg ut 
que nous reg ussions 
que vous reg ussiez 
qu'ils reg ussent 



that I might receive 
that thou mightest receive 
that he might receive 
that we might receive 
that you might receive 
that they might receiv 



Que j'aie reg u 
que tu aies reg u 
qu'il ait reg u 
que nous ayons reg u 
que vous ayez reg u 
qu'ils aient reg u 



Que j'eusse reg u 
que tu eusses reg u 
qu'il eut reg u 
que nous eussions reg u 
que vous eussiez reg u 
qu'ils eusscnt reg u 



that I may have received 
that thou mayest have received 
that he may have received 
that we may have received 
that you may have received 
that they may have received 

PLUPERFECT. 

that I might have received 
that thou mightest have received 
that he might have received 
that we might have received 
that you might have received 
that thev might have received 



Reg ois 
qu'il reg oive 
ree evons 
rec evez 
qu'ils reg oivent 



IMPERATIVE MOOD.. 

receive [thou] 
let him receive 
let lis receive 
receive [you] 
let them receive 



160 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Recevoiii 
Ife pas rec evoir 

pas re$ u 
Xf<6 rec evant pas 
H" ay ant pas rec u 

rec ois pas 
n •• < .is poj 

■ 

\* pas 

I 

.<•.<• evions ;> U 

■ 

pen 

■ 

•Is m n 

tu nc r<>- uvr^ 



To Receive (Negatively) 

INFINITIVE. 

not to receive 
PAST. 

not to have received 

PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

not receiving 

COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE. 



not having received 
INDICATIVE. 
PRESENT. 

S I receive not, do not receive, or am 
( not receiving 

tli<.u receivest not 

he receives not 

we receive d >t 

von receive not 

they receive not 

IMl'KIU T.( T. 

(I received not, did not receive,** 
( wus not receiving 
thou receivedst not 
lie received not 
ire received not 
yon received not 
they received not 
l ki.iimii:. 

1 received not or <1M not t 
t'.ui p odvedsl not 
he received not 
wv received not 
I not 
i not 



I ulinil or will not receive 



VERBS. 



101 



U ne rec evra pas 
nous ne rec evrons pas 
vous ne rec evrez pas 
Us ne rec evront pas 



he shall not receive 
we shall not receive 
you shall not receive 
they shall not receive 



Je ne rec evrais pas 



tu ne rec evrais pas 
il ne rec evrait pas 
nous ne rec evrions pas 
vous ne rec evriez pas 
ils ne rec evraient pas 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



PRESENT. 

jl should, would, could, or might 
1 not receive 

thou shouldst not receive 

he should not receive 

we should not receive 

you should not receive 

they should not receive 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 



Je n'ai pas rec u 

tu n'as pas rec u 
il n'a pas rec u 
nous n'avojis pas rec u 
vous n'avez pas rec u 
ils n'ont pas rec u 



j I have not received, did not receive, 
! or have not been receiving 

thou hast not received 

he has not received 

we have not received 

you have not received 

they have not received 



Je navais pas rec u 

tu n' avals pas rec u 
il n'avait pas rec u 
nous n' avians pas rec u 
vous n'aviez pas rec u 
ils n'avaient pas rec u 



PLUPERFECT. 

j I had not received, or had not been 
t receiving 

thou hadst not received 

he had not received 

we had not received 

you had not received 

they had not receivcu 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

Je n'eus pas rec u I had not received 

tu n'eus pas rec u thou hadst not received 

il n'eut pas rec u he had not received 

nous n'eumes pas rec u we had not received 

vous n'eutes pas rec u you had not received 

ils n'eurent pas rec u they had not received 



162 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Je riaurai pas rcr u 
■ as pas rcr u 
U n'aura pas r< p a 
rumt n'uurons pas rcc u 
tout n'auree pas reg u 
■2s u'aiiront pus nc u 



Jc h'a'trais pas re? u 
tn n'avrais pat r<<; a 

: 
: 
u* Huuniniit J 



FUTURE AXTEBTOK. 

I shall or will not have received 
tliou shalt not have received 
he shall not have received 
we shall not have received 
yon shall not have received 
they shall not have received 

CONDITIONAL IWsT. 

<I should, would, could, or might 

( not have received 
thou Bhouldst not have received 
he should not have received 
we Bhould not have received 
you should not have received 
they should not have received 



rpi'il M 

■.vent pat 

',' 
qa'tl /.• 

p-u 

Q 

qur (it /.' 
qui! ii< 

14 rtr u 
que ton* Ji'a 
qu'Us n'aient pas rej 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

FBI -INT. 

tliat I may not receive 



that t In .ii mayeel not receive 

that he may not r 

thai we may not p 

that you may nol r» o Ive 

that they may not receive 

DCFKBJ 

that I mlghl not r 

that thou mightest not r< 

that be might not i 

that we inL'ht not : 

tha' yon might not receive 

that they might d 

that I may not have ree 

that thon mayeel ti"' have received 

that he may not have received 

may not have r. c 
that you may not have n 
that ihey may ii"t have r 



VEEBS. 



163 



Queje n'eusse pas rec u 
que tu n' cusses pas rec u 



PI/UrEEFECT. 

that I might not have received 
(that thou mightest not have re 
I ceived 



qu'il n'eut pas rec u 
que nous n'exissions pas rec u 
que vous n'eussiez pas rec u 
qu'Us n'eussent pas rec u 



that he might not have received 
that we might not have received 
that you might not have received 
that they might not have received 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Ne rec ois pas receive not or do not receive [thou] 

qu'il ne rec oive pas let him not receive 

ne rec evons pas let us not receive 

ne rec evez pas receive not or do not receive [you] 

qu'Us ne rec oivent pas let them not receive 



Kecevoir 



Bee om-je 
rec ois-tu 
rec oxt-il 
rec evons-nous 
rec evez-vous 
rec oivent-ils 

Bee ey&is-je 
rec evais-fat 
rec evait-# 
rec eyions-nous 
rec eviez-vous 
rec evaient-z7s 



Bee -as-je 
rec us-tu 
rec utU 



To Receive (Interrogatively?) 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

do I receive or am I receiving 

dost thou receive 

does he receive 

do we receive 

do you receive 

do they receive 

IMPERFECT. 

did I receive 
didst thou receive 
did he receive 
did we receive 
did you receive 
did they receive 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

did I receive 
didst thou receive 
did he receive 



164 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



reg urnes-nous 
rec ules-vou* 
rec urent-t& 

Rec evrai-je 
ret evns-tn 

rec evra.-til 
rec evTons-nous 
rec exrez-rous 
rec evront-jY* 



Rrr cvrais-jd 

rec Brads-fa 
nil fl 

i 



did we receive 
did vera receive 
did they receive 

FUTURE. 

shall or will I receive 
6lialt thou receive 
shall he receive 
shall we receive 
shall you receive 
shall they receive 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

^ should, would, could, or might I 
( receive 

ehouldst thou receive 

should be receive 

should we receive 

slmuM y«>u receive 

should they receive 



.int'i r ; u 

tut rer u 

i ne u 



Atat»J6 rer u 

ciT.iixtu rrr u 
rrr u 
«U ree u 
« rrr u 



ree u 
fuj^u r^f u 



TKI.TIKIT IM'I IIMI !'.. 

have 1 received or did 1 receive 

luu«t thou r. C 
has he r> -i-rivi d 
have »v received 
have j 
have ihrv r . 

I'MT! Bl I I T 

(had I received or had I heen re- 

tving 
hadet thou r 
had h<- reoeived 
had we reoeived 

lmd J 

had t" 

rnETEIUT AJRTUUOB. 

had I receivi d 
had?t thou reed 



VEEBS. 



165 



eut-il reg u 
(<Xmes-nous reg v 
eutes-vous reg u 
eurent-ils reg u 

Aurai-je reg u 
auras-tu reg vl 
aura-t-il reg u 
aurons-nous reg n 
aurez-vous reg u 
auront-ils reg u 



Aurais-je reg n 

aurais-tu reg u 
aurait-il reg u 
aurions-nous reg a 
auriez-vous reg u 
auraient-ils reg u 



had lie received 
Lad we received 
had you received 
had they received 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

shall or will I have received 
shalt thou have received 
shall he have received 
shall we have received 
shall you have received 
shall they have received 

CONDITIONAL PAST. 

j should, would, could or might I 
[ have received 
shouldst thou have received 
should he have received 
should we have received 
should you have received 
should they have received 



Rec :vom T > Receive [Negatively and Interrogatively.) 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Jfe reg ois-je pas 

ne reg ois-tu pas 
ne reg oit-il pas 
ne rec evons-nous pa 
ne rec evez-vous pas 
ne reg oivent-its pas 



Sfe ree ev&is-je pas 

ne rez ev&is-tu pas 
716 rec evait- # pas 



j do I not receive or am I not re- 
( ceiving 

dost thou not receive 

does he not receive 

do we not receive 

do you not receive 

do they not receive 

IMPERFECT. 

( did I not receive or was I not re- 
( ceiving 

didst thou not receive 

did he not receive 



166 



0:N~ THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 



-ve rec evions-?;ow5 pas 
ne rec eviez-iws i^as 
ne rec evaient-iYs pas 



Ne rec v&-je pas 
ne rec ns-tii pas 
ne rer ut-il pas 
ne rer umes-7ious pas 
ne rer fLte&vous p"s 
ne n .<; urent-iVs pas 



did we not receive 
did you not receive, 
did they not receive 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



did I not receive 
didst tliou not receive 
did he not receive 
did we not receive 
did you not receive 
did they not receive 



Ne rec evrai-j* pas 
ne rec evras-fu pat 

evra til pas 

■ 

ne rec evront-Us pas 



shall or will I not receivo 
eliiilt thou not re<viv„ 
shall he not receive 
shall we not receive 
shall yon not r. CP'VW 

Bhall they not receive 



UTIONAL MOOD. 



Jft n <• i 

pat 

a 

M 

i 



[should, would, could, or might 1 

) not -ec-ive 

■houldsl thou do! r ivo 

should he not receive 
should we nol re© Ive 
should yoa nol receive 
should they n it receive 



iMlETEIll f IMHIIMIT. 



ITaije pas r 

i.'.i 1 /) u n • n 

i 

n out i 



have I not received, did I not ro- 

r ive, or have I not been re- 
ceiving 

h:i<t thou not r. 
hafl he not received 

qoI received 

ft4 



VERBS. 



lo7 



N'amis-je pas reg u 

n'avais-tu pas reg u 
n'avait-il pas reg u 
n'avions-nous pas reg u 
n'amez-vous pas reg u 
n'avaient-Us pas reg u 



N'eus-je pas reg u 
n'eics-tu pas ret;, u 
n'eut-il pas reg u 
n'eumcs-nous pas reg u 
n'eutes-vous pas reg u 
n'eurent-ils pas reg u 



N'auraije pas reg u 
n'auras4u pas reg u 
n'aura-til pas reg u 
n'aurons-nous pas reg u 
n'aurez-vous pas reg u 
n'auront-Us pas reg u 



Jpaurais-je pas reg u 

n'aurais-tu po$ reg u 
n'aurait-il pus reg u 
%'aurions-nous pas reg 
n'auriez-vous pas reg u 
n'auraient-ils pas reg u 



PLUPERFECT. 

j had I not received or iiad I not 
( been receiving 

hadst tliou not received 

had he not received 

had we not received 

had you not received 

had they not received 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

had I not received 
hadst thou not received 
had he not received 
had we not received 
had you not received 
had they not received 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

shall or will I not have received 
shalt thou not have received 
shall he not have received 
shall we not have received 
shall you not have received 
shall they not have received 

CONDITIONAL PAST. 

j should, would, could, or mLjht I 

( not have received 
shouldst thou not have receive 1 
should he not have received 
should we not have received 
should you not have received 
should they not have received 



REMARKS ON VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 

The following Verbs, all ending in evoir, are conjugated like 
recevoir : 

Apercevoir, 
coTicevoir, 



to perceive, 
to conceive. 



lb'8 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

decevoir, to deceive. 

percevoir, to collect. 

devoir, to owe. 

redevoir, to owe again. 

"Whenever the verbs ending in cevoir, in the course of conju- 
gation have to place o,oor« after the c of the root, a cedilla 
must be added to c in order to preserve the pronunciation of 
the Infinitive. 

Ex. apcrccvn'r. 

Present. J'ap&rfoia 

tu npi rgoit 

i! cj» rgoit 

nous apereewmt (no cedilla needed.) 

votts iipi n-citz ( " " ) 

Ho ap< tfotomi 
Subj. Pris Q 

IJ I t I .III! • 

qu'ti i'i» n-oire 

ions (no cedilla neededj 
rcetiet ( " " ) 

• <ijx rfowent 

Pabt. Pact, -i>*>y'' 

PbSBBBT. «/. / BUBJ. PBXa Qhc je r^,>y-e 

Pabt. Past. Bapu 

The Participle Tast of d< >■■,;,-, which is ( /ii, requires the Cir- 

cumfl< d order to distinguish it from the Genitive of 

Masculine Article '/". No accent i- given tu the Feminine 

there i-* do ambiguity here. 

All the other Verb! of this Conjugation arc irregular and 

will be given hereafter ; 



VEKBS. 



160 



IV. VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

Vendre To Sell (Affirmatively.) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Vend re to sell 



Avoir vend u 



Vend ant 



to have sold 

PARTICIPLE PRESENT, 
selling 



COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

Ayant vend u having sold 



Vendu 



Je vend s 
tu vend s 
U vend 

nous vend ons 
vous vend ez 
Us vend ent 



Je vend ais 
tu vend ais 
il vend ait 
nous vend ions 
vous vend iez 
Us vend aient 



Je vend is 
tu vend is 
il vend it 



PARTICIPLE PAST. 

sold 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

I sell, do sell, or am selling 

thou sellest 

he sells 

we sell 

you sell 

they sell 

IMPERFECT. 

I sold, did sell, or was selling 

thou soldest 

he sold 

■we sold 

you sold 

they sold 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

I sold or did sel 
thou soldest 
he sold 
8 



170 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



nom vend imes 
vous vend ites 
Us vend ircnt 



Je vend rni 
tu vend ras 
il vend ra 
nous vend rons 
VOtU r< iid rez 
its vend rout 



Jd rend rais 
•' rais 

I rait 
,<l lionfl 
D01M Mnd riez 
relent 



,d u 
Q n , 

r/"".* avo I i 



we sold 
you sold 
they sold 

FUTUKE. 

I shall or -will sell 
thou sbalt sell 
he shall sell 
we shall sell 
you shall sell 
they shall sell 

CONDITIONAL MOOD 
PBS3KKT. 

I should, would, could, or mi^bt 6ell 
thou Bhouldsl Bell 
he should Bell 
we should sell 

you should sill 

they should sell 

rKl.TI.KIT IMT.I IMTK. 

^ I have sold, did sdl, or have been 
J Belling 

thou hast - 

he has sold 

we have Bold 

you have sold 

tiny have sold 



i 

ill a rad n( vend u 






rmrEKii i t 

I had sold Of had been sidling 
thou hadst sold 
h<- had sold 
wr had sold 

joo had sold 

tb«y had M'ld 

l'Ki.ii.inr aHTERIOB. 
1 had sold 
thou budM Bold 



VERBS. 



171 



U l ut vend u 
nous edmes vend u 
vous eutes vend u 
ils eurent vend u 



he had sold 
we had sold 
you had sold 
they had sold 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

Taurai vend u I shall or will have sold 

tu auras vend u thou shalt have sold 

il aura vend u he shall have sold 

nous aurons vend u we shall have sold 

vous aurez vend u you shall have sold 

ils auront vend u they shall have sold 



CONDITIONAL, PAST. 



Taurais vend u 

tu aurais vend u 
il aurait vend u 
nous aurions vend u 
vous auriez vend u 
ils auraient vend u 



(I should, would, could, or niigh 
( have sold 

thou shouldst have sold 

he should have sold 

we should have sold 

you should have sold 

they should have sold 



Queje vend e 
que tu vend es 
qu'il vend e 
que nous vend ions 
que vous vend iez 
qu'ils vend ent 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT. 

that I may sell 
that thou mayest sell 
that he may sell 
that we may sell 
that you may sell 
that they may sell 



Queje vend isse 
que tu vend isses 
qu'il vend it 
que nous vend issions 
que vous vend issiez 
qu'ils vsnd : 



Quefaie vendu 
que tu aies vend u 



IMPERFECT. 

that I might sell 

that thou mightest have sold 

that he might sell 

that we might sell 

that you might sell 

that they might sell 

PAST. 

that I may have sold 

that thou mayest have sold 



172 



ON THE PAKTS \.tT SPEECH. 



qu'il ait vend u 
que nous ayons vend u 
que vous ai/ez tend u 
qu'ils aient vend a 



Quej'eusse vend u 
que tu eusses vend u 
qu'il eut vend u 
que nous eussions vend u 
que vous eusriez n nd u 
yu'.'fo eusscnt vend u 



that lie may have sold 
that we may have sold 
tliat you may have Bold 
that they may have sold 

PLUPERFECT. 

that I might have sold 
that thou mightest have sold 
that he might have sold 
that we might have sold 
that you might have sold 
that they might have sold 



qu'il rend e 
r. nd ona 
vend ez 

qu'ils < 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

BOH [thou] 
let him sell 
let us sell 
sell [you] 
let them sell 



■ nd ro 
JTatoir p<t.s Mad B 



To Sdl {Negatively) 

INFIX III VE MOOD. 

ntESKNT. 

not to sell 



PAST. 

not to have sold 



RABID Ti'l.K P8BSHNT. 

d ant pas BOt selling 

00HPO1 ETD 0* Tin: PASTS r i'i.i: niF.SEHT. 
not having sold 

INDiCATlVK MOOD. 
PBBBEHT. 

c I s. 11 not, do nut Bell, or am not 



& s pat 

tu M r.nd 8 pas 



( selling 
thou sellest not 



VERBS. 



173 



il ne vend pas 
nous ne vend ons pas 
vous tie vend ez pas . 
Us ne vend ent pas 



he sells not 
we sell not 
you sell not 
they sell not 



IMPERFECT. 



Je ne vend ais pas 

tu ne vend ais pas 
il ne vend ait pas 
nous ne vend ions pas 
vous ne vend iez pas 
Us ne vend aient pas 



j I sold not, did not sell, or was not 
! selling 

thou soldest not 

he sold not 

we sold not 

you sold not 

they sold not 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



Je ne vend is pas 
tu ne vend is pas 
il ne vend it pas 
nous ne vend imes pas 
vous ne vend ites pas 
Us ne vend irent pas 



I sold not or did not sell 

thou soldest not 

he sold not 

we sold not 

you sold not 

they sold not 



Je ne vend rai pas 
lu ne vend ras pas 
il ne vend ra pas 
nous ne vend rons pas 
vous ne vend rez pas 
Us ne vend ront pas 



I shall or will not sell 
thou shalt not sell 
he shall not sell 
we shall not sell 
you shall not sell 
they shall not sell 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



Je ne vend rais pas 

tu ne vend rais pas 
il ne vend rait pas 
nous ne vend rions pas 
vous ne vend riez pas 
ils ne «6/ic?,-raient pas 



fl should, would, could, or might 
( not sell 

thou shouldst not sell 

he should not sell 

we should not sell 

you should not sell 

they should not sell 



174 



OX TH£ PAKTS OF SPEECH. 



Je n'ai pas vend u 

tu n'aspas vend u 
il ri a pas tend u 
7)/>ns n'avons pas vend u 
vous n'avcz pas rend u 
Us n'ont pas vend u 



PRETERIT rNDEFIXTTE. 

$1 have not sold ^id not sell, or 
( have not been selling 
thou hast not sold 
he has not sold 
we have not sold 
you have not sold 
they have not sold 



Je n'tnau pas vend a 

r! a 

U n'awrit pas >•. ,,d a 

nous 

vous ;,' ' u 

Us n'ar id a 



VhVVF.llYFXT. 

I had not sold or had not been selling 
thou hadst not sold 
he had not sold 
we had not sold 
yon had not sold 



they had not sold 



PBBTEBZI 

J, %\ '/.« (MM 

ftf /,'- ".< pOI IN id 

i? n'aid pa* Dend u 

-' u 
d u 



ANTERIOR. 

I had not sold 
thou liadst not sold 
he had not Bold 
we had ool Bold 

yon had n A s iid 

they had QOt Sold 



RE ANTERIOR. 



H0VI I 

<I u 



I shall or wiD not have sold 
thou shah not have sold 

he -hall not have sold 

we shall ool have sold 

y.ni shall n<it have sold 
all QOl have sold 



J 

I u 

TOU4 /.' id U 

id a 



r\sr. 
y 1 should, would, could, or might 

. 

•il' 1 li >t liav- 

gold 

yon sfa sold 



VERBS. 175 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Que je ne vend e pas that I may not sell 

que tu ne vend es pas that thou mayest not sell 

qu'il ne vend e pas that he may not sell 

que nous ne vend ions pas that we may not sell 

que vous ne vend iez pas that you may not sell 

qu'ils ne vend ent pas that they may not sell 

IMPERFECT. 

Queje ne vend isse pas that I might not sell 

que tu ne vend isses pas that thou mightest not sell 

qu'il ne vend it pas that he might not sell 

que nous ne vend issions pas that we might not sell 

que votes ne vend issiez pas that you might not sell 

qu'ils ne vend issent pas that they might not sell 



Queje n'aie pas vend u that I may not have sold 

que tu n'aiespas vend u that thou mayest not have sold 

qu'il n'ait pas vend u that he may not have sold 

que nous n'ayons pas vend u that we may not have sold 

que vous n'ayez pas vend U that you may not have sold 

qu'ils n'aient pas vend u that they may not have sold 

PLUPERFECT. 

Queje n'eussepas vend u that I might not have sold 

que tu n'eusses pas vend u that thou mightest not have sold 
qu'il n'eilt pas vend u that he might not have sold 

que nous n 'eussions pas vend u that we might not have sold 
que vous n'eussiez pas vend u that you might not have sold 
qu'ils n'eussent pas vend u that they might not have sold 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Ne vend s pas sell not or do not sell [thou] 

§u'il ne vend e pas let him not sell 

ne vend ons pas let us not sell 

ne vend ez pas sell not or do not sell [you] 

qu'ils ne vend ent pas let them not sell 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Tenure 



To Sell 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



(Interrogatively.) 



Est-ce queje vend s 

vend s-tu 

vend-il 

vend ons-noua 

vend ez-rous 

vend eut-ils 



Vend tds-je 
vend a.\s-tu 
r, nd ait-fZ 
n nd ions-notM 
r< nd i' i 
rc'/c/ uient-tZ* 



1' ' is-j« 
r</<</ ii 

rend imes-fuwi 

tend ir<-ut-i7« 



]'. & i 
tend raa-fu 
n til 

int-tZi 



PRESENT. 

do I sell or am I selling 

dost tliou sell 

does he sell 

do we sell 

do you sel . 

do they sell 

IMPERFECT. 

dill I sell or was I selling 

didst thou sell 

did he sell 

did we sell 

did you sell 

did they Bell 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

did I sell 
didst thou sell 
did lie sell 
di<l we s.ll 
did y<m sell 
diil they b«dl 

FUTl I.E. 

sliull 0T will I sell 
■halt thou sell 
bIirII he Ball 
■hall we Bell 
shall you - 
shall (hay h.-II 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

FBI D 

ndt^f should, would, could, or might I sell 

Bhonldsl thou bbQ 
Mtld rait il M he sell 



VERB5. 



177 



vend Tiom-nous 
vend viez-vous 
vend vaiont-ils 



Ai-je vend u 
as-tu vend u 
d-t-il vend u 
avons-nous vend u 
avez-vous vend u 
ont-ils vend u 



Avais-je vend u 
avais-tu vend u 
avait-il vend u 
avions-nous vend u 
aviez-vous vend u 
avaient4ls vend u 



should we sell 
should you sell 
should they sell 

PKETSKIT INDEFINITE. 

have I sold or did I sell 

hast thou sold 

has he sold 

have we sold 

have you sold 

have they sold 

PLUPERFECT. 

had I sold or had I been selling 

hadst thou sold 

had he sold 

had we sold 

had you sold 

had they sold 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

Eus-je vend u had I sold 

eus-tu vend u hadst thou sold 

eut-il vend u had he sold 

eumes-nous vend u had we sold 

eutes-vous vend u had you sold 

eurent-ils vend u had they sold 



Aurai-je vend u 
auras-tu vend u 
auro>t-il vend u 
aurons-nous vend u 
avrez-vous vend u 
auront-ils vend u 



Aurais-je vend u 

aurais-tu vend u 
auraitil vend u 



FDTORE ANTERIOR. 

shall or wi'l I have sold 
shalt thou have sold 
shall he have sold 
shall we have sold 
shall you have sold 
shall they have sold 

CONDITIONAL PAST. 

( should, would, could, or might J 
( have sold 

shouldst thou have sold 

should he have sold 
8* 



ITS 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



aurions-nous vend u 
auriez-vous tend u 
auraient-ils vend u 



should we have sold 
should you have sold 
should thev have sold 



Veni 



To Sell [Negatively and Interrogatively.) 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



EeUee queje ne tend s pas 

id B4u pas 
ne vend 4 

ooB-iunu pat 

Ji'tS 



do I not sell or am I not selling 

dost thou not sell 

does he not sell 

do we not s 11 

do you nol Bell 

do they not sell 



iMiT.r.ir.cT. 



/ ait Jul* 

■ne tend icz-rous pat 
I aient i's pas 



did I not sell or was I not selling 
di.lst thou not sell 
did be Dot sell 
did we not sell 

di<l you not sell 
did tlirv not sell 



PRETERIT I>r.l-TSITE. 



X pas 

ne tend I 



did I not s.-ll 
didst tliou not sell 

did he not si-11 
I'.i-l we i. 

; not - 'II 
did tliev not soil 



d rni-/'< pi't 

■ 
- 

ne tend rcz-rous pas 
ne oiu! Kmtdb pas 



shall Of "ill 1 I 
elialt thou not nil 
shall h<- no; - 
shall We not Sill 

m doI -ill 



YEKBS. 



179 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



Ne vend rais-je pas 

ne vendnds-tu pas 
ne vend mit-il pt\~ 
ne vend vions-nous pas 
ne vend riez-voi/s pas 
ne vend laient-ils pas 



t should, would, could, or might I 
( not sell 

shouldst thou not sell 

should he not sell 

should we not sell 

should you not sell 

should they not sell 



N'ai-je pas vend u 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

j have I not sold, did I not sell or 
\ have I not b«en selling 
n'as-tu pas vend u hast thou not sold 

n'a-t-il pas vend u has he not sold 

n'av&ns-nous pas vend u have we not sold 

n'avez-vous pas vend u have you not sold 

n'ont Us pas vend u have they not sold 



PLUPERFECT. 



N' avais-je pas vend u 

n'avais-tu pas vend u 
n'avait-il pas vend u 
n'avions-nous pas vend u 
n'avicz-vous pas vend u 
n' awient-ils pas vend u 



j had I not sold, or had I not been 
\ selling 
hadst thou not sold 
had he not sold 
had we not sold 
had you not sold 
had they not sold 



N'exts-je pas vend u 
n'eus-tu pas vend u 
n'eut-il pas vend u 
n'eumes-nous pas vend u 
n'eutes-vous pas vend u 
n'eurent-ils pas vend u 

UTaurai-je pas vend u 
n'auras-tupas vend u 
n'aura-t-il pas vend u 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

had I not sold 

hadst thou not sold 
had he not sold 
had we not sold 
had you not sold 
had they not sold 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

shall or will I not have sold 
shalt thou not have sold 
shall he not have sold 



n'aurons-nouspas vend u 



shall we not have sold 



180 OX THE PA I ITS OF SPEECH 

n'aurez-vous pas vend u 6liall you not Lave sold 

n'auront-ils pas tend u shall they not have sold 

CONDITIONAL PAST. 

. . , ( should, would, could, or might I 

A aurais-je pas vend u \ . . ,, 

( not have sold 

n'aurais-tn pus vend u shouldst thou not have sold 

n'auradt-il pan vend u should he not have sold 

n'aurions-nous pas vend u should we not have sold 

n'auriez-rous pus vend u should you not have sold 

n'auraient-Us pas vend u should they not have sold 

THE DIFFF.KENT KINDS OF VKRBS. 

After having thus shown the manner in which the verbs arc 
conjugated according to the tour conjugations, it becomes ne- 
& Bsary to learn that French verbs differ not in Conn only, but 
in nature also. We find accordingly, 

1. At. iii.-h express an action directed upon an 
immediate object. They are often called Transitive Verbs, as it 
were becaui : over (transire) upon the obr 
ject, which is their <lir<>-t object, and consequently always in the 
accusative case. To Rod out if a verb is an active verb in 

h, take tin- first person, and it' the words personne, some- 
body, <>r quel que chose, something, can be added, the verbis 
; it' not, it is neuter, 

Ex. fni],j> r: s I strike somebody. Active. 

.1 read something. Active. 

. ,, (somebody 
marcher: je march ■ I walk • 

( V- i ithing 

cannot be said, hence i iter. 

nponnd tens.-. i, v meana of tin 
Auxiliary Verb avoir. 

Ex. / I have struck 

I have read 

2. X ther an action that boa no 



181 



direct object, or no action at all, but merely a state or a condi- 
tion. They are also called Intransitive Verbs. 

Ex. enlrer, to enter, can only be used with in : entrer dans lo 
salon, to enter into the parlor; emhellir, to grow handsome, ex- 
presses no action, but merely a condition. 

, Neuter Verbs make their compound '.enses by means of the 
Auxiliary avoir or etre, according to established usage ; a few 
take either avoir or etre, changing in signification accordingly. 
The following neuter verbs are conjugated with ttre, all otbers 
with avoir : 



aborder* 
accoucher 

accourvr* 

accroitre* 

aller 

apparai're* 

arriver 

augmenter* 

avenir or adve- 

tdr 
baisser* 
cesser* (1) 
changer* (2) 
choir 
convenir 



to land 

ia verb used in 
surgery 
to run to 
to increase 
to go 
to appear 
to arrive 
to increase 

to happen 

to fall, to decrease 
to cease 
to change 
to fall 
to agree 



croitre* 

diborder* 

dt'camper* 

decider 

dechoir* 

decroitre* 

degenerer* 

demeurer* 

descendre* (3) 

devenir 

diminuer 

disconvenir 

disparaitre* 

echapper* (4) 

echoir* 

echouer* 



to grow 
to overflow 
to decamp 
to die 
to decay- 
to decrease 
to degenerate 
to stay or remain 
to go down 
to become 
to decrease 
to deny or disown 
to disappear 
to escape 
to become due 
to run aground 



(1) Cesser takes etre when there is no expectation of a return. 

(2) Changer, applied to persons takes etre, when used to express a change 
in the physiognomy, and avoir when it alludes to a moral change. 

(S) It is very easy to distinguish with all these verbs, which auxiliary 
must be selected ; for it is customary in English, to substitute the verb to 
!>e tor to go, when the action has entirely ceased. This substitution cannot 
take place in French : thus, he has gone down, as it implies that he is still 
down, must be translated by il est descendu, while he has ler-.n down, will 
be translated by il a descendu, etc. 

(4) Echapper signifies to pass unperceived, and then takes avoir ; it has 
besides the meaning of to let slip, -vh^n it takes etre. 



182 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



embdlir* 
empire?* 
entrer* (3) 
expir, r* (5) 
grandir* 

monter* (3) 
mourir 
naitre 
partir* 
parvi i ir 
passer* (G) 
pCrir* (7) 



to blow 

to grow handsome 
to grow worse 
to enter 
to expire 
to grow tall 
to intervene 
to go up 
to die 
to be born 
to set out 
to attain 
to pass away 
to perish 
to come from 
ow jronng 
(3) to go down again 



redevenir 

remonter* (3) 

rentrer* 

repattir* 

ressortir* (3) 

rester* 

rcsulkr* 

retomber 

retoumer 

sonner* (8) 
sortir* (3) 
turvenir 

cm UUr 



to become again 
to go up again 
to come in again 
to set out again 
to go out again 
to stay 
to result 
to fall again 
to return 
to come back 
to ring 
to go out 

tO befall 
to fall 
to come 
to grow old 



8. /'< Fieri , which express an action, which the subject 

(nominative) of the verb Buffers From an agent, which may be 



Us fun lit butt us pur leu- 



I am persecuted Qty Bomebody.) 
they wen- beaten by the enemy. 



■ Verbs Consist of the auxiliary verb itr* with tho 

participle past, which must agree in gender and number with 

the BUl 



I 

•prise 



they were wounded 

I 



Mid Urt when it mentis to ctata 
■\ •■ I )>\ par, Mil menus, 

d wixh prrir. when tl i I to; uroir, whet 

i hen it is in - . rtain nlntiot 

the riugiug at I other mentioned in ths 



VERBS. 1S3 

4. Pronominal Verbs are so called in French, because they 
are always accompanied in the infinitive by the pronoun se, and 
throughout their conjugation by two personal pronouns. 

Ex. se promener, to walk. 

Present. Je me promene 
tu te promenes 
il se promene 
nous nous promenons 
vous voit-s promenez 
Us se prominent 

They are divided into three classes, according to their 
meaning : 

a. Reflexive Verbs, which express an action that is reflected 
upon the subject of the verb. The pronoun se in the infinitive 
is here translated by one's self, and the second pronoun in the 
course of conjugation by myself] thyself, himself, etc. 

Ex. se tromper, to deceive one's self. 

PRESENT. 

Je me trompe I deceive myself 

tu te trompes thou deceivest thyself 

il se trompe he deceives himself 

nous nous trompons we deceive ourselves 

tous vous trompez you deceive yourselves 

Us se trompent they deceive themselves 

b. Reciprocal Verbs, which express an action that is mutually 
affecting two or more persons. The pronoun se in the infin 
itive is here translated by each other or one another, and the 
second pronoun in the course of conjugation by the same 
words. 

Ex. s'entr'aimer, to love each other. 

PRESENT. 

Kous nous entfaimons we love each other 

vous vous entr'aitnes you love each other 

ils s'entr'aiment they love each other 



184 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

c. Pronominal Verbs Proper are such as are peculiar to the 
French language and are not so used in English. The pronoun 
se in the infinitive, and the second pronoun in the course of 
conjugation, are here not translated at all, because their use is 
peculiar to French and not required iu English. 

Ex. se lever, to rise. 

PRESENT. 



Je me live 


I rise 


tu te I 


thou risest 


il se tice 


he rises 


nous nous letons 


we rise 




you rise 


■Lilt 


they rise 



All pronominal Verbs are conjugated by means of the aux 
i'.iarv verb lire. 

5. Impersonal Vnhs, which express an action performed, not 
by a person, bul by some ether agency. They are used only 
in the third person singular. 

Ex. il j'l, nl, it rains; il ghU, it freezes; il arrive, it happens; 

il ii <i, there is ; il convient, it is proper. 

These various kinds of verbs are conjugated like the regular 
verba of the four conjugations, except the numerous class 01 
Pronominal verba, which require the adclitit.ii of personal pro- 
nouns, and of irhich therefore, one is here given in full. 



Sk Li.vku To h {Affirmatively.) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
,- er t-> rise 

In 6 to have risen 

PASTS ifi.i: i'Ki:-i.NT. 
8cktia.nl rising 



VERBS. • 



185 



COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

S'etant lev e Laving risen 



Lev e 



PARTICIPLE PAST 

risen 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Je me lev e 

tu te lev es 
il se lev e 
nous nous lev ons 
vous vous lev ez 
Us se lev ent 



I rise, do rise, or am rising 

thou risest 

lie rises 

we rise 

you rise 

they rise 



Je me lev ais 
tu te lev ais 
il se lev ait 
nous nous lev ions 
vous vous lev iez 
Us se lev aient 



I rose, did rise, 
thou rosest 
he rose 
we rose 
you rose 
they rose 



, or was rising 



Je me lev ai 

tu te lev as 

•U se lev a 

nous nous lev ames 

vous vous lev ates 

Us se lev erent 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

I rose or did rise 
thou rosest 
he rose 
we rose 
you rose 
they rose 



Je me lev erai 
tu te lev eras 
il se Uv era 
nous nous lev erons 
wus vous lev erez 
Us se lev eront 



I shall or will rise 
thou shalt rise 
he shall rise 
we shall rise 
you shall rise 
they shall rise 



186 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



Je me lev erais 

til te lev erais 
U se lev erait 
nous nous lev erions 
nous vous lev eriez 
Us se lev eraient 



PRESENT. 

\ I should, would, could, or might 
( rise 

thou shouldst rise 

he should rise 

we should rise 

you should rise 

they should rise 



Je me suis lev e 



mETERIT INDEFINITE. 

< I have risen, did rise, or have been 
( rising 



tu fes lev e 
Usse tout I, c t's 



t<i f&oit 

il s'.'ti"' 
7/."/.< // 



thou l>a<t risen 
he lias risen 

i we have risen 

you have r ie n 
tiny have risen 

rLCTEKi r» r. 

I had risen or had been rising 
thou hadst risen 
lie had risen 
we had risen 
. had ris.'n 
the; had r 



./. 771 /" 
tU (■ f 



; r" AMI RIOB, 

I ha 



thon ha 

we lm.i ■ 

yon had ri>en 
the; had risen 



./ I Bhall or will 1 1 : i \ 

: Bhalt hare i 
|] have risen 
nous nous serous h 



VERBS. 



187 



vous vous serez lev is 
Us se seront lev es 



Je me serais lev e 

tu te serais lev e 
il se serait lev e 
nous nous serious lev es 
vous vous seriez lev es 
Us se seraient lev es 



you shall have risen 
they shall have risen 

CONDITIONAL PAST. 

( I should, would, could or might, 

( have risen 
thou shouldst have risen 
he should have risen 
we should have risen 
you should have risen 
they should have risen 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Que je me lev e 
que tu te lev es 
qu'il se lev e 
que nous nous foe- ions 
que vous vous lev iez 
qu'ils se lev ent 

Que je me lev asse 
que tu te lev asses 
qu'il se lev at 
que nous nous lev assions 
que vous vous lev assiez 
qu'ils se i 



that I may rise 
that thou mayest rise 
that he may rise 
that we may rise 
that you may rise 
that they may rise 

IMPEKFECT. 

that I might rise 
that thou mightest rise 
that he might rise 
that we might rise 
that you might rise 
that they might rise 



Que je me sois lev e 

que tu te sois lev e 

qu'il se soit lev e 

que nous nous soyons lev es 

que vous vous soyez lev es 

qu'ils se soient lev es 



PAST. 

that I may have risen 
that thou mayest have risen 
that he may have risen 
that we may have risen 
that you may have risen 
that they may have risen 



Que je me fusse lev e 
que tu te fusses lev 6 
qu'il se fffl lev 4 



PLUPERFECT. 

that I might have risen 
that thou mightest have risen 
that he might have risen 



> 



188 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



que nous nous fussions lev es 
que rous vous fussiez lev es 
qu'tts se fussent lev es 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Lev e-toi rise [thou] 

qu'il se lev e let him rise 

lev ons-nous let us rise 

lev ezrvous rise [you] 

qu'tts se tiv ent let them rise 



that we might have risen 
that you might have risen 
that they might have risen 



Re Lever 

Ne pas se lev er 
Jfi pat fftrt let 6 



Ne se lev ant /></.» 



To Rise 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

not to rise 
r.vsT. 

not to have risen 
PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
not rising 



(Negatively.) 



COMPOUND OF Tin: PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 



Ne s'itant pat 



not having risen 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Je nt me let c pat 

tu in- U Ur es pas 

il ne M lit 6 /«'.* 

nous ne ;»<'(/.« /<r ons pas 

r,,»M M I 

Us ne se Uc ent pas 



tu m U Uv his pas 



present. 

\ I rise not, do not rise, or am not 
/ rising 

thou risest not 

he rises not 

we rise not 

jroa rise not 

they ri 

DOT ' 

( I rose nut. did not rise, or was not 
) r 
thou rotect not 



VERBS. 189 



U ne se lev ait pas he rose not 

nous ne nous lev ions pas we rose not 

vous ne vous lev iez pas you rose not 

Us ne se lev aient pas they rose not 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

Je ne me lev ai pas I rose not or did not rise 

tu ne te lev as pas thou rosest not 

U ne se lev a pas he rose not 

notes ne nous lev ames pas we rose not 

vous ne vous lev ates pas you rose not 

Usnese lev erent pas they rose not 



Je ne me lev erai pas I shall or will not rise 

tu ne te lev eras pas thou shalt not rise 

U ne se lev era pas he shall not rise 

nous ne nous lev erons pas we shall not rise 

vous ne vous lev erez pas you shall not rise 

Us ne se lev eront pas they shall not rise 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PRESENT. 



Je ne me lev erais pas 



I should, would, could, or might 
not rise 



tu ne te Uv erais pas thou shouldst not rise 

U ne se lev erait pas he should not rise 

nous ne nous lev erions pas we should not rise 

vous ne vous lev eriez pas you should not rise 

Us ne se lev eraient pas they should not rise 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

T , , (I have not risen, did not rise, 01 

Je ne me suis pas lev e i , . . 

( have not been rising 

tu ne t'es pas lev e thou hast not risen 

il ne s'est pas lev e he has not risen 

nous ne nous sommes pas lev es we have not risen 

vous ne vous etes pas lev es you have not risen 

Us ne se sont pas lev es they have not risen 



100 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Je tie m'ctaispas lev e 

tu ne t'etais pas lev e 
U ne s'itait pas lev e 
nousne nous Stums pas lev C 
tons ne vous etiez pas lev es 
Us ne s'ctaknt pas lev es 



PLUPERFECT. 

(I had not risen or had not been. 
( rising 

thou hadst not risen 

he had not risen 
5 we had not risen 

you had not risen 

they had not risen 



Jc ne me fas pas let e 
tu ne tefuspas lev e 

il ne sefut pat 
nous >c 

IS h B «'s 

ih ne sef'tinit jiris let 6s 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

I had not risen 
thou hadst not risen 
he had not risen 
we had not risen 
you had not risen 
thev had not risen 



PTJTUHH 

M pas lev e 
tn m I 

U m m n ra pas lev e" 
nous n ■ now >'■•* 

il* ne H 



ANTERIOR. 

I shall or will not have risen 
thou shalt not have risen 

ho shall not have risen 

we shall nut have risen 

yOU shall not have ri-en 

they Bhall nol have risen 



• i [ON \i. PAST. 



jt m dm terait pas 
tu a r tr *< rats pas 

Us ne se seraientpat 



\ 1 should, would, could, or might 
( not have risen 

thou shoulds< not have risen 

he should not have risen 

old no' have risen 
you should not have risen 
they should not have risen 



SUIUr.NCTIVK MOOR 

em -i rt. 



e pas 

flM »»>■ on? ;.">< 



that I may not rise 
that thou mayesl not rise 
thai be may not ri>e 
fi.Ht we may nor ri->- 



VERBS. 191 

que vous ne vous lev iez pas that you may not rise 

qu'ils ne se lev ent pas that they may not rise 

IMPERFECT. 

Queje ne me lev asse^as that I might not rise 

que tu ne te lev asses pas that thou mightest not rise 

qu'il ne se lev sit pas that he might not rise 

que nous ne nous lev assions pas that we might not rise 

que vous ne vous lev assiez pas that you might not rise 

qu'ils ne se lev assent pas that they might not rise 

PAST. 

Queje ne rue sois pas lev e that I may not have risen 

que tu ne te sois pas lev e that thou mayest not have risen 

qu'il ne se soitpas lev e that he may not have risen 

que nous ne nous soyons pas lev es that we may not have risen 
que wus ne vous soyez pas lev es that you may not have risen 
qu'ils ne se soient pas lev es that they may not have risen 

PLUPERFECT 

Queje ne me fusse pas lev e that I might not have risen 

que tu ne te fusses pas lev e that thou mightest not have risen 

qu'il ne se fut pas lev e that he might not have risen 

que nous ne nous fussions pas lev es that we might not have risen 
que vous ne vousfussiez pas lev es that you might not have risen 
qu'ils ne sefussent pas lev es that they might not have risen 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Ne te lev e pas rise not or do not rise [thou] 

qu'il roe se lev e pas let him not rise 

ne nous lev ons pas let us not rise 

ne vous lev ez pas rise not or do not rise [you] 

qu'ils ne se lev ent pas let them not rise 



Se Lever To Rise (Interrogatively.) 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 
Me lev e-je do I rise or am I rising 

te lev es-ta dost thou rise 



192 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



se lev e-t-il 
nous lev ons-nous 
tous lev ez-vous 
se lev ent-ils 



Me lev ais-je 
te lev &is-tu 
se lev ait-il 
nous lev ions-nous 
nous lev ie&eotu 
se lev aient-tfs 



Me lev ai-je 
te lev as-tu 
se lev aAU 

RJUes-nOUl 

'■ c utcs-cou* 
• mils 



> ■ r:\\jf 

ru til 

I 



rait il 

nous U 

tout lev Brim B9MI 

m i-'r .TiiH'nt A 



Mit tuU 

fet tu Isv e" 



does lie rise 
do we rise 
do you rise 
do they rise 

IMPERFECT. 

did I rise or was I rising 

didst thou rise 

did he rise 

did we rise 

did you rise 

did they rise 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

dill I rise 
didst thou rise 
did he rise 
did we rise 
did you rise 
did they rise 



shall or will I rise 
shall thoa rise 
shall he rise 

shall \v ri^ 1 ' 

\"U rise 
shall they rise 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PHI. SI NT 

should, would, onld, nr might I rise 

Bhouldsl thou 

should lie rise 

should ire rise 

should you riso 

should tiny rise 

PKETKKIT INlU.riMTK. 

have 1 risi-n or did I risn 
liast thou ri*'ii 



VERBS. 



193 



s'est-il lev e 

nous sommes-nous lev es 
dous etes-vous lev es 
se sont-ils lev es 



lias he risen 
have we risen 
had you risen 
had they risen 



PLUPERFECT 



M'etais-je lev e 
t'etais-tu lev e 
s'etait-il lev e 
nous etions-nous lev es 
vous etiez-vous lev es 
s'etaient-ils lev es 



had I risen or had I been rising 

hadst thou risen 

had he risen 

had we risen 

had you risen 

had they risen 



Me fus-je lev e 

te fus-tu lev e 

se fut-il lev e 

nous fames-nous lev es 

vous futes-vous lev es 

se furent-ils lev es 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR 

had I risen 
hadst thou risen 
had he risen 
had we risen 
had you risen 
had they risen 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



Me s&rai-je lev e 
te serastu lev e 
se sera-t-il lev e 
nous serons-nous lev es 
vous serez-vous lev es 
se seront-ils lev es 



shall or will I have risen 
shalt thou have risen 
shall he have risen 
shall we have risen 
shall you have risen 
shall theyhave risen 



CONDITIONAL PAST. 



Me serais-je iet> e 



te serais-tu lev e 
se serait-il lev e 
nous serions-nous lev es 
vous seriez-vous lev es 
se seraient-ils lev es 



j should, would, could, or mia;ht I 
( have risen 

shouldst thou have risen 

should he have risen 

should we have risen 

should you have risen 

should they have risen 



9 



194 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Se Lever To Rise (Xegatively and Interrogatively.) 

'indicative MOOD. 



Ne me let e-je pas 
ne te lev es-tu pat 
ne se lev e-t-il pas 
ne nous lev ons-nous pas 
ne vous lev ez-r 
ne se lev ent-ils pas 



Neme Uv ais-je pas 
ne tr hv ai^-t'i pat 
r ait-iV ;»/•< 
tw runtt I, >■ laaa-nout pas 
ne 90UM '• 
ne se h r aient-tfa pat 



do I not rise or am I not rising 

dost thou not rise 

does he not rise 

do we not rise 

do you not rise 

do they not rise 

IMPERFECT. 

did I not rise or was I not rising 

didst thou not rise 

did he not rise 

did we not rise 

did you doI rise 

did they not rise 



Ne me lev ai->' pas 
lie t> V 
ne se !• 

ne «*"< ■ 

ne te lev ferent 



im Ti 1:1 1 DSFXHTTB. 

did I not rise 
didst thou ii. it rise 
did In- not rise 
did we nut rise 
did you DOl rise 
did they not rise 



Ne me U 

I 
ne n»« \tt pas 

ne to" • 



idiall Of will I n>.t rise 
slmlt tlinii not rise 
shall he not rise 
shall WS not ri*- 
shall ymi not rise 
shall they not ris«- 



CONDITIONAL M«>(>1>. 



ne te Uc fie III p<u 



PRK8KNT. 

(should, would, could, or might I 
| nut rise 

shouldst thou QOi 



VERBS. 



195 



ne se lev exslt-il pas 
ne nous lev enions-nous pas 
ne vous lev enez-vous pas 
ne, se lev er&ient-ils pas 



should lie not rise 
should we not rise 
should you not rise 
should they not rise 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 



Ne me suis-je pas lev e 

ne t'es-tu pas lev e 

ne s'est-il pas lev e 

ne nous sommes-nous pas lev es 

ne vous etes-vous pas lev es 

ne se sont-ils pas lev es 



j have I not risen, did I not rise, or 
( have I not been rising 

hast thou not risen 

has he not risen 

have we not risen 

have you not risen 

have they not risen 



PLUPERFECT. 



Ne m'etais-je pas lev e 

ne fetais-tu pas lev e 

ne s'etait-il pas lev e 

ne nous etions-nous pas lev es 

ne vous etiez-vous pas lev es 

ne s'etaient-ils pas lev es 



j had I not risen or had I not been 
( rising 

had st thou not risen 

had he not risen 

had we not risen 

had you not risen 

had they not risen 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 



We me fus-je pas lev e 

ne te fus-tu pas lev e 

ne se fut-il pas lev e 

ne nous fames-nous pas lev es 

ne vous futes-vous pas lev es 

r.-e se furent-ils pas lev es 



had I not risen 
hadst thou not risen 
had he not risen 
had we not risen 
had you not risen 
had they not risen 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



Ne me serai-je pas lev e 
ne te seras-tu pas lev e 
ne se sera-t-il pas lev e' 
ne nous serons-nous pas lev i 
ne vous serez-vous pas lev es 
ne se seront-ils pas lev es 



shall or will I not have risen 
shalt thou not have risen 
shall he not have risen 
shall we not have risen 
shall you not have risen 
shall they not have risen 



196 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

CONDITIONAL PAST. 

. . ( should, would, could, or niijjht I 

Ne me serais-je pas let e j , 

l not have risen 

ne te serais-tu pas let) e shouldst thou not have risen 

ne se serait-il pas b b >'■ should he not have risen 

ne jums serions-noua pas lev es should we not have risen 

ne vous seriez-vous pas lee es should you not have risen 

ne se seraient-ils pas h r ea should they not have risen 

For the purpose of practising Pronominal Verbs, s'en aller % 
which contains the pronoun en, is lure added, 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB b'bN ALLBR. 

S'kn Ai.i.ku To <• Affirmatively.) 

1MTMTIVK MOOD. 
riu.-EXT. 
■'br to go away 

S'en it.-, to have gone away 

TARTU DPI 

lOoni away 

I HFOinn) Of Tin: iwnric in.r. PR] - 

y,n Uant alii having gone away 

PASTD 1 1 -i .1. PAOT. 
En alii away 

INK ATI vi; MOOD. 

•■> away, do ^o nwnv. oj am 
van 

( away 

tho 

■way 
iUicntont Any go away 



VERBS. 



107 



Je m'en allais 

tu t'en allais 
il s'en allait 
nous nous en allions 
vous vous en alliez 
Us s'en allaient 



Je m'en allai 

tu ten alias 

il s'en alia 

nous nous en alldmes 

vous vous en alldtes 

Us s'en allerent 



IMPERFECT. 

( I went away, did go away, or was 
( going away 

thou wentest away 

lie went away 

we went away 

you went away 

they went away 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

I went away or did go away 

thou wentest away 

he went away 

we went away 

you went away 

they went away 



Je m'en irai 
tu t'en iras 
il s'en ira 
nous nous en irons 
vous vous en ires 
Us s'en iront 



I shall or will go away 
thou shalt go away 
he shall go away 
we shall go away 
you shall go away 
they shall go away 



Je m'en irais 

tu t'en irais 
il s'en irait 
nous nous en irions 
vous vous en iriez 
Us s'en iraient 



Je m'en suis alle 



tu t'en es alle 
il s'en est alle 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

^1 should, would, could, or might 
( go away 

thou shouldst go away 

he should go away 

we should go away 

you should go away 

they should go away 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

1 1 went away, did go away, or have 
( gone away 

thou hast gone away 

he has gone away 



198 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



nous nous en sommes alles 
tons tous en etis altis 
Us s'en sont alles 



Je m'en etais alle 

tu fen etais alle 

il s'en etait alle 

iuxis nous en etiojis alles 

tous vous en ttkz alles 

tta (ten etoimt altts 



J, in', a fus alle 
t'i t'i n fus alle 

AMM """•* ' " fumes alle*. 
tous vous en fiit es alles 



we have gone away 
you have gone away 
they have gone away 

PLUPERFECT. 

I had gone away 
thou hadst gone away 
lie had gone away 
we had gone away 
you had gone away 
they had gone away 

TERIT ANTERIOR. 

I had gone away 

tin ni hadst gone away 

he had gone away 

we had gone away 

ymi had gone away 

■ 'in' away 






tu ten terasaBS 

T"ll* I 



./ Is <ille 

nous nous • 
il* 8' en x, 



I BhaU "/• will have gone awny 
tlnui shall have gone away 

B (H y 

we BhaU have gone away 
y.,u BhaU i .:\- me away 
they sbaU have gone away 

( iixniii 

( li;i \ 

. way 

\m- should away 

should have one a 
th-y Bhould have gone away 



qiu- In ('■ 



Bway 

j 



190 



qu'il s'en aille 
que nous nous en allions 
que vous vous en alliez 
qu'ils s'en aillent 



that he may go away 
that we may go away 
that you may go away 
that they may go away 



Queje m'en allasse 

que tu ten allasscs 

qu'il s'en allot 

que nous nous en allassions 

que vous vous en allassiez 

qu'ils s'en allassent 



that I might go away 
that thou nrightest go away 
that he might go away 
that we might go away 
that you might go away 
that they might go away 



Que je m'en sois alle 

que tu t'en sois alle 

qu'il s'en soit alle 

que nous nous en soyons alles 

que vous vous en soyez alles 

qu'ils s'en soient alles 



that I may have gone away 
that thou mayest have gone away 
that he may have gone away 
that we may have gone away 
that you may have gone away 
that they may have gone away 



PLUPERFECT. 



Que je m'enfusse alle 

que tu t'en fusses alle 

qu'il s'en filt alle 

que nous nous enfussions alles 

que vous vous enfussiez alles 

qu'ils s'en fussent alles 



that I might have gone away 
that thou inightest have gone away 
that he might have gone away 
that we might have gone away 
that you might have gone away 
that they might have gone away 



Va-t'en 

qu'il s'en aille 
allons-nous-en 
allez-vous-en 

qu'ils s'en aillent 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

go away [thou] 
let him go away 
let us go away 
go away [you] 
let them go away 



200 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

S'en Aller Tu Go Away [Negatively?) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Ne pas s'en alUr not to go away 

PAST. 

Ne pas s'en itre alle not to have gone away 

PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
Ne s'en allant pas not going away 

uiMI'iivnd OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
Ne s'en (taut ;• not having gone away 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

, . J I do nol go away or am not eroiuar 

Je ne men raw ni* < " ° 

( away 

tu nt fin i i* pas thou dost n«U go away 

he does not go away 

• i a it go away 

I pat you do not go away 

Us ne s'en njnt pas a ay 






( I did not go away or was not going 

( away 

t hull (I'l.lM lint go 

ii ne s't he did not go away 

w,iix ru i pas we did not go away 

yon iii l n"t go away 

iU nr *V. tiny did not go away 

i-ui.ti;hit m IIMTE. 

/ ii pas I 'li'l not go away 

tu a, f-ii tiiltispas thou dldal not go away 

he 'li'l nol go away 
we * l » ■ 1 ti"t go away 
yon <lid not go away 

,t pat thay did not go away 



VERBS. 



201 



Je ne m'en iraipas 

tune fen iras pas 

il ne s'en ira pas 

nous ne nous en irons pas 

vous ne vous en irez pas 

Us ne s'en iront pas 



I shall or will not go away 
tliou shaty not go away 
he shall not go away 
we shall not go away 
you shall not go away 
they shall not go away 



Je ne m'en irais pas 

tu ne fen irais pas 
il ne s'en irait pas 
nous ne nous en irions pas 
vous ne vous en iriez pas 
Us ne s'en iraient pas 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

j I should, would, could, or might 

( not go away 
thou shouldst not go away 
he should not go away 
we should not go away 
you should not go away 
they should not go away 



Je ne m'en suis pas alle 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

j I did not go away or have not gone 

( away 

tu ne fen es pas aUe thou hast not gone away 

il ne s'en est pas alle he has not gone away 

nous ne nous en sommes pas alles we have not gone away 
vous ne vous en etes pas alles you have not gone away 

Us ne s'en sont pas alles they have not gone away 



Je ne m'en etais pas alle 

tu ne fen etais pas alle 

il ne s'en etait pas alle 

nous ne nous en eiions pas alles 

vous ne vous en etiez pas alles 

Us ne s'en etaient pas alles 



PLUPERFECT. 

I had not gone away 
thou hadst not gone away 
he had not gone away 
we had not gone away 
you had not gone away 



they had not gone away 
PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

Je ne m'enfus pas alle I had not gone away 

tu ne fen f us pas alle thou hadst not gone away 

U ne s'en fut pas alle he had not gone away 

nous ne nous en fumes pas alles we had not gone away 
9* 



203 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



tijij.-i ue I'ous en fates pas allis 
Us ne s'en fare id pas alles 



you had not gone away 
they had not gone away 



•FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



Je ne m'en serai pas alle 
tn ne t'en sera* pus aUe 
U ne s'en sera p 
nous ne nous en serons pas 
vow ne tous en serez pecs a 
ils ne s'en seront pas attes 



I shall or will not have gone away 
thon phalt not have gone away 
he shall nor Lave gone away 
we shall not have gone away 
you shall not have gone away 
they shall not have gone away 



Je ne 



r lis p I* "■"' 

tn /,. >' 

il ne ft t tile 

vous ne tous 

■ 



CONDITIONAL PAST 
j I should 



would, couM, or 
/ not have gone away 
thou Bhooldst not have gone away 
he should not have gone away 
Jd not have gone away 
lid not. have gone away 
• have gone away 



qn, /■/ 

qu'iU ne s'en aQUmt pas 



BUBJUNCTD 

jo away 



that thou mayeel not go away 
away 
away 

that y.. ; away 

that thi 



am 

I away 

i]n. (>i that thou i! jo away 

thai he mi away 

(J thai We DO -way 

o away 

away 



qnr tn 
qu'H m ■ 



may not have gone away 
that thoumaj oneaway 

that he may not haw gone away 



VERBS. 203 

que nousne nous en soyons pas (dies that we may not have gone away 
que vous ne vous en soyezpas alles that you may not have gone away 
qu'ils ne s'en soient pas alles that they may not have gone away 

PLUPERFECT. 

Queje ne m'enfiisse pas alle that I might not have gone away 

( that thou mightest not have gone 
que tu ne ten fusses pas (die ■{ 

* J ■>* { away 

qu'il ne s'en f tit pas alle that he might not have gone away 

que nous ne nous en fussions pas ) , 

.. V that we might not have gone away 

que vous ne vous enfussiezpas alles that you might not have gone away 
qu'ils ne s'en fussent jws alles that they might not have gone away 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Ne fen va pas do not go away [thou] 

qu'il ne s'en aille pas let him not go away 

ne nous en allons pas let us not go away 

ne vous en aliez pas do not go away [you] 

qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas let them not go 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Irregular Verbs are those which differ in their conjugation 
from the models which have been given heretofore, and which 
regulate those that are called Regular Verbs. The difference 
can, of course, only apply to the simple tenses, as the compound 
tenses of all verbs are made alike. 

Various methods have been attempted to arrange the very 
considerable number of Irregular Verbs in certain classes, but 
experience has proven that after all the student benefits more 
by learning them singly, as he will soon obtain a sufficient 
knowledge of the nature of the irregularities to feel where to 
expect them, and to know what they are likely to be. 

The principal Irregular Verbs are given here, omitting 
those that are of rare use, and with the understanding that 
derivatives follow the irregularities of those verbs, from which, 
they are derived. 



201 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



-FIRST CONJUGATION. 



Aller 



Inf. Aller 



Je vuis 
nous aHona 



J'allais 

allions 



J'allai 

nous all aines 



J'irai 



.I'irais 
umiuj irions 



dQe 
■ aHiona 





To Go 


Part. pres. allant 


PART, past, all<* 


TRESKNT. 




tu vas 


il va 


vous allez 


ils vont 


MFEBFBCT. 




tu allais 


il allait 


vous alliez 


ils allaient 


KIT DEFINITE 




tu alias 


il alia 


vous a.; 


ils allerent 


FrTiKi:. 




tu iras 


ilira 


vous irez 


ils iront 


BBTSVBBAL. 




tu irais 


il brail 


liia 


il.-. irai.'Ut 


im;-i.k\tiyi:. 




V.i 


qui] ailla 


all./. 


qu'ila aillent 



-i mi \, nvi: i-i.i 

qoe tu ■iHei qui] 

■ 

Sfllll N. I !\ I. Pi 



que tu allossea 

I | it 

Ink. BBVoyoC P.\kt I'm ~ Knvovnnt 

rni. ~i. nt. 
Pesvoie tu • n . ■■ 

Ojaat vous eiivoye* 



qu'fl all'it 
qu'ill allasscnt 

To S 

Part. Past, Ekivqpfl 

il IllVnir 

Ua tan 



VERBS. 



205 



J'envoyais 
nous envoyions 

J 'envoyai 

nous envoy times 

J'enverrai 

nous enverrons 

J'enverrais 
nous enverrions 



IMPERFECT. 

tu envoyais 
vous envoyiez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

tu envoyas 
vous envoyiltes 

FUTURE. 
tu enverras 
vous enverrez 

CONDITIONAL. 

tu enverrais 
vous enverriez 



il envoyait 
ils envoyaient 



il envoya 

ils envoyerent 

il enverra 
ils enverront 



il enverrait 
Us enverraient 



envoyons 

Que j'envoie 

que nous envoyions 

Que j'envoyasse 

que nous envoyassions 
Conjugate after the 
The compound 



IMPERATIVE. 

envoie qu'il envoie 

envoyez qu'ils envoient 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

que tu envoies qu'il envoie 

que vous envoyiez qu'ils envoient 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST, 
que tu envoyasses qu'il envoyat 

que vous envoyassiez qu'ils envoyassent 
same manner, renvoyer, to send back, 
are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 



II. SECOND CONJUGATION. 

Acquerir To Acquire. 

Inf. Acquerir Part. Pres. Acquerant Part. Past, Acquis 



J'acquiers 
nous acquerons 



J'acquerais 
nous acquarions 



tu acquiers 
vous acquerez 

IMPERFECT. 

tu acquerais 
vous acqueriez 



il acquiert 
ils acquierent 



il acquerait 
ils acqueraient 



200 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



J'acquia 

nous aequimes 

J'acquerrai 
nous acquerrona 

J'acquerrais 
nous acquerrions 



acqut'rons 

Quej'acquiere 

que noa.- acqoerions 



TKETERIT DEFENTITE. 
tu acquis il acquit 



vous acquires 

FUTURE. 

tu acquerras 
vous acquerrez 

CONDITIONAL 

tu acquerrais 
vous acquerriez 

IMPERATIVE 

acquiera 

acquire/. 

I'KEBENT. 

que tu 

: r'.cz 
■ i. PAST. 



Us acquirent 



il acquerra 
ils acquerront 



il acqut^rrait 

rraii-nt 

qu'il acquiere 
qu'ils acquiereat 



qu'il acquiere 

qu'il.-i acqui< rent 



que tu acmisses 
- aoquiaaionfl que \ 

■ have. 

• manner: 
inlre toiaqnira 

raw to (etch 

• 

I fective) only used in the present of ibo 
Infinitive, in the pi te, in the imperfect -•!' the subjunctive, 

un<l in tin- comp oun d t. d 

led, rx<-.q>t in the 
Infinitive, an 1 In 1 1 1 » ■ c impoond I 



qu'il acquit 



ASSAII.I.IR 

1'V! 






To . UMtt/J 

I'Mir. Past 






■ 

isaillea 



aille 



207 



J'assaillais 
nous assaillions 



nous assaillimes 



J'assaillirai 
nous assaillirons 



nous assaillirions 



assaillons 



Que j'assaille 

que nous assaillions 



IMPERFECT. 

tu assaillais 
vous 



illiez 



il assaillait 
ils assaillaient 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

tu assaillis il assaillit 

vous assaillites ils assaillirent 



FUTURE. 

tu assailliras 
vous assaillirez 



il assaillira 
ils assailliront 



CONDITIONAL, 
tu assaillirais il assaillirait 

vous assailliriez ils assailliraient 

IMPERATIVE. 

qu'il assaille 
qu'ils assaillent 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

que tu assailles qu'il assaille 

que vous assailliez qu'ils assaillent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

Que j 'assail! isse que tu assaillisses qu'il assaillit 

que nous assaillissions que vous assaillissiez qu'ils assaillissent 

Conjugate after the same manner, tressaillir, to start. 
The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 



BOUILLIR 



Tnf. Bouillir 



Je bous 

nous bouillons 



Je bouillais 
nous bouillions 



Part. Pres. Bouillant 

PRESENT. 
tu bous 
vous bouillez . 

IMPERFECT. 

tu bouillais 
vous bouilliez 



To Boil 
Part. Past, Bouilli 



il bout 

ils bouillent 



il bouillait 
ils bouillaient 



208 



ON THE TARTS OF SPEECH. 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



Je bouillis 


tu bouillis 


il bouillit 


nous bouillimes 


vous bouillites 

FUTURE. 


ils bouillhent 


Je bouillirai 


tu bouilliras 


il bouillira 


nous bouillirons 


vous bouillirez 

CONDITIONAL. 


ils bouilliront 


Je bouillirai s 


tu bnuillirais 


il bouillirait 


nous bouillirions 


vous bouilliriez 

IMI'KUUIYI. 


ils bouilliraient 




bous 


qu'il bouille 


bouillons 


bouilles 


qu'ils bouillont 




BDBJl -V iivi: PBBBBNT. 


Que je bouille 


que tu bouQlea 


qu'il bouille 


que uous bouillons 


que vous bouilliea 


qu'ils bouillont 



scan tli n\ H PAST. 
Queje Imuillisse qno tn boniTHmnn qu'il bouillit 

que nous boul qu'ils bouilliat 

i boil iiway ; rebouOir 
t«> i»>il again. 

mpound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to bam 



Con 



I burir 



Pakt. PBI -. ('"iirant 



Part. Past, ('<>uru 



•I >urs 

lurona 



tu coure 

am 



il court 
ils oo urent 



Je ooui 

nous couri "ns 






rais 
iirii-z 



il ooanit 
lie con 



irus 



1 rr i'.i> iimi':. 

tu <•' . 



intrant 



VERBS. 



209 





FUTURE. 




Je courrai 


tu courras 


il courra 


nous courrons 


vous courrez 

CONDITIONAL. 


ils courront 


Je courrai s 


tu courrais 


il courrait 


nous courrions 


vous courriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


ils courraient 




cours 


qu'il coure 


courons 


courez 


qu'ils courent 




SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


Que je coure 


que tu coures 


qu'il coure 


que nous courions 


que vous couriez 


qu'ils courent 



qu'il couriit 
qu'ils courussent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

Que je courusse que tu courusses 

que nous courussions que vous courussiez 

Conjugate after the same manner : 
Accourir, to run to. Encourir, 

Concourir, to concur. Parcourir, 

Discourir, to discourse. Recourir, 

Secourir, to succor, to help. 

The compound tenses of the above verbs are conjugated with 
Avoir, to have ; those of accourir, to run to, are also sometimes con- 
jugated with Eire, to be. 



to incur. 

to run over. 

to nave recourse. 



Cukillir To Gather 

Inf. Cueillir Part. Pres. Cueillant Part. Past, Cueilli 



Je cueille 
nous cueillons 



PRESENT. 

tu cueilles 
vous cueillez 



il cueille 
ils cueillent 



Je cueillais 
nous cueillions 



IMPERFECT. 

tu cueillais 
vous cueilliez 



il cueillait 
ils cueillaient 



Je cueillis 
nous cueillimes 



PRETERIT DEFTNTTE. 

tu cueillis il cueillit 



vous cueillites 



ils cueiliirent 



210 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Je cucillerai 
uous cueillerons 



Je cueillerais 
nous cueillerion8 



cueillons 



Que je c 

que doub caeiHions 



■ teilli&se 



FUTURE, 
tu cueilleras 
vous cucillerez 

COXDITIOXAL. 

tu cueillerais 
vous cueilleriez 

TMPKliATIVE. 

cueille 
ciuillez 

BTJBJTJN< Tivk FBBSBNT. 

que tu cueillea 
que vous cueilliez 

ST7BJ1 N( Ti\ r. PAST. 



il cueillera 
ils cueilleront 



il cueillerait 
ils cueilleraient 



qu'il cueille 
qu'ils cueillent 



qu'il cueille 
qu'ils cueillent 



qui" tu cueilliBses qu'il eueillit 

que ooufi cueillissions que vous cueillissiez qu'ils cueillissent 
ated wiili Avoir, to have. 
Conjugate after the Baroe manner: 
. ! to gather, to n-ap. 



DORMIB 



I-.iv I >■ »rm i r 



nousd 



• 



Pabt, Pbb8 Dormanl 

tu don 

. ! i :• T. 
vous dormiee 



T« Sleep. 
Pabt. Past, Dormi 



il ilort 
Us donnent 



il dormail 
Us dormaient 






Je dormiral 

ormlrona 



PBI i : Rl i DJBKLN1TJG. 

tu <1 • il dormlt 



tu dorm! 



ils dormlrent 



il donnin 
Ms dormiroct 



VERBS. 



211 





CONDITIONAL. 




Je dormirais 


tu dormirais 


il dormixait 


nous dorinirions 


vous dormiriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


ils dormiraieut 




dors 


qu'il dorme 


dormons 


dormez 


qu'ils dorment 


. 


SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


queje dorme 


que tu dormes 


qu'il dorme 


que nous dormions 


que vous dormiez 


qu'ils dorment 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

Queje dormisse que tu dormisses qu'il dormit 

que nous dormissions que vous dormissiez qu'ils dormissent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 

Conjugate after the same manner : 
Endormir, to lull asleep. Redormir, to sleep again. 

S'endormir, to fall asleep. Se r endormir, to fall asleep again. 

The compound tenses of s'endormir, and se rendormir, are conju- 
gated with Eire, to be, as all pronominal verbs are. 



Faillir To Fail 

Inf. Faillir Part. Pres. Faillant Part. Past, Failli 

present. 
Je faiUis tu faillis il faillit 

nous faillimes vous faillites ils faillirent 

This verb is defective, and only used in the above tenses, and in all 
the compound tenses, which are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 



Fleurir To blossom, to flourish. 

This verb is regular and conjugated like finir, when speaking of 
plants and flowers ; but when speaking of the prosperity of a king- 
dom, or of a town, the participle present is florissant, and the im- 
perfect of the indicative, je florissais, tu florissais, etc. 

Befleurir, to blossom, or to flourish again, follows the same rule. 



212 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Ixf. Fuir 


Part. Pkes. Fuyant 

PRESENT. 


Part. Past, I 


Je fiiis 


tu fuis 


ilfuit 


nous fuyona 


vous fuyez 

IMPERFECT. 


Us fuient 


Je fuyais 


tu fuyais 


il fuyait 


nous fuyions 


vous fuyiez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 


ils fuyaient 


Je fuis 


tu fuis 


il fuit 


nous fuimes 


vous fuites 

FITURE. 


ils fuirent 


Je (bind 


tu fuiras 


il fuira 


nous fuirons 


vous fuirez 

CONIHTI'NAI,. 


Qfl tu i rout 


Je fuirais 


tu fuirais 


il fuirait 


ji'>u> UnoM 


vous fuiriez 

WBATm 


ils fuiraient 




fuis 


qu*il fuie 


hjoni 


fllVeZ 


qu'ils fuient 




bcrjiv tivi: rt:' 


Qneje ftde 


quo tu 


(juil fuie 


que nous fayioni 


qu.- rang fuvi.-z 
MJJWUJU rivr. PACT. 


• in ils fuieut 


Qneje ' 


que tu fuisees 


qn il fuit 


que nous fbJaekxta 


que voni (U 


quHfl fuissent 



Ifce compo u nd tent ' -/r, to have. 

Conjugate nft.T the same manner, x'fifiiir, to run away. 



Gkmk To Lie 

This verb (defective), wfaleh formerly signified to ho lyinir doWB a is 
no l"!iu r, T i" dm : WBj however, nay sometime*, ttgU : c&jft, hero lien, 
ootninon form i»y wiiich an epitaph bagtiif, 



VERBS. 



213 



Hair 



To Hate 



This verb is regular, and conjugated like finir, except in tlie first 
three persons singular of the present of the indicative, je hats, I hate ; 
t u liais, thou hatest ; U Tiait, he hates ; and in the second person 
singular of the imperative, Jmis, hate. 

A diteresis (•') is required over the % in all tenses and person? 
except in those above-mentioned ; this dseresis is to cause the a and i 
to be pronounced as two syllables. 



Inf. Mourir 


Part. Pees. Mourant 

PRESENT. 


Part. Past, 


Je meurs 


tu meurs 


il meurt 


nous mourons 


vous mourez 

IMPERFECT. 


ils meurent 


Je mourais 


tu mourais 


il mourait 


nous mourions 


vous mouriez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 


ils mouraient 


Je rnourus 


tu mourus 


il mourut 


nous mourumes 


vous mourutea 
FUTURE. 


ils mourui-ent 


Je mourrai 


tu mourras 


il mourra 


nous mourrons 


vous mourrez 

CONDITIONAL. 


ils mourront 


Je mourrais 


tu mourrais 


il mourrait 


nous mourrions 


vous mourriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


ils mourraient 




meurs 


qu'il meure 


mourons 


mourez 


quil meurent 



Que je meure 
que nous mourions 



subjunctive present. 

que tu meures qu'il meure 

que vous mouriez qu'ils meurent 



214 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



SUBjrXCTIVE PAST. 

Que je rnourusse que tu mourusses qu'il mourut 

que nous mourussions que vous mourussiez qu'ils raourussent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Etre, to be. 

Conjugate after the same manner, 86 mourir, to be dying. 



OUIR 



To Hear. 



This verb (defective) can only be used in the present of the infin- 
itive, oulr, to hear : in the preterit definite, j'outs, I heard ; il ouit, 
he heard ; in the imperfect of the subjunctive, que j'oui886, that 1 
might hear ; qu'il ouit, that he might hear ; and in its compound 
tenses, which are formed with the simple tenses of Avoir, to have, and 
its past participle ou'i, asj'ai <>u'i, tu at <>u"t, etc. 



I N I". Oiiv rir 



OuVBXR To Open. 

PABT.FBBB. OuvranJ Paut. Pasx Ouv ert 



J'oav re 



J'OUV 



J'ouv ril 
uoui ovn 



J'oav rirai 



J'ouv riraii 



PBBssarr. 

tu ouv rM 

vous ouv m I 

DfFEBFB r. 
tu ouv rail 

VOU8 Oll\ 

PRRTKBl r i<!i imti:. 



il ouv re 
ils ouv rm< 

Tl ouv rait 
ils ouv ratal 



tu ouv rM 
VOOfl ouv /•«'/< .1 

l i ii iti: 

tu ouv rifM 

V0UB OUV 

i "Mi nos M.. 
tu ouv riraii 



il <>uv ru 
ils ouv 



il ouv rira 
ils ouv riraai 



il ouv rvraA 

[Is OUV riraii nt 



IMTI R 

qu'il ouv r>" 
qu'ila ouv rwtf 



VERBS. 



215 



Qu' /'ouv re 

que nous ouv rions 



SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

que tu ouv res qu'il ouv re 

que vous ouv riez qu'ils ouv rent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

Quq j'ouv risse que tu ouv risses qu'il ouv rit 

qua nous ouv fissions que vous ouv rissiez qu'ils ouv rissent 

Compound tenses are conjugated witli Avoir, to have. 
Conj ugate after the same manner : 

Bouvrir, to open again. Decouvrir, to discover. 

Entr'ouvrir, to half open. Offrir, to offer. 

Couvrir, to cover. Misoffrir, to underbid. 

Recouvrir, to cover again. Souffrir, to suffer. 



Inf. Sen for 



Sentir ^o Feel. 

Part. Pres. Sen tan.£ Pakt. Past, Sen ti 



Je sen s 
nous sen forcs 



Je sen tais 
nous sen tions 



Je sen fos 
nous sen times 



Je sen forai 
nouo sen tirons 



Je sen tirais 
nous sen iirions 



PRESENT. 




tu sen s 


il sen t 


vous sen tez 


ils sen tent 


IMPERFECT. 




tu sen tais 


il sen tait 


vous sen tiez 


ils sen taient 


PRETERIT DEFINITE 




tu sen Us 


ii sen fo'£ 


vous sen tites 


ils sen tirent 


FUTURE. 




tu sen tiras 


il sen tira 


vous sen tirez 


ils sen fo'nmf 


CONDITIONAL. 




tu sen tirais 


il sen tirait 


vous sen tiriez 


ils sen tvraient 


IMPERATIVE. 




sen s 


qu'il sen fe 


sen tez 


qu'ils sen tent 



i;16 



OX THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 



Que je sen te 
que nous sen tioiia 



SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

que tu sen tes 
qua vous sen tkz 



qu'il sen te 
qu'ils sen te/ii 



SUBJUNCTIVE FAST. 

Que je sen tisae que tu sen hisses qu'ils sen tit 

que nous sen fissions que vous sen tissit z qu'ils sen tissent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with J.r<n>, to have. 
Conjug te affe r ;he same manner: 

at, to agree, Repartir, 

■ 
BessenUr, to resent* to fee] tp$ntir, 

to lie. /' Ttir, 

to give the lie, to be- 7? p f >7/r, 

lie, to contradict. Sortir, 



Mmtir, 



to reply, 
to feel still. 
to repent. 
to Bet out. 

at again. 
-lit. 



tir, to go out again. 



mpound tenses of the first six of the above verbs, are con- 
jugated with At ir, to have, 

Those I tir and M r ; ; 1 pronominal verbs, 

an conjugated with 2 an I those of partir, r ep art i r , sortir, 

metunea w'nh Eire. 






Sk.kvm; To Serve. 

PAST. PW I\\ki\ Past, Ser w 






tu ser s 
VOW BBC M 



Dwl 



.)<■ ml MM 

nous ser tiuns 



l.Ml'l.Kl i:cT. 



tu mt 
vous ser vita 



■ tit 
ils Ber rnicnt 






l III 1 BRIT I'KllMTB. 

il ser r/7 









VERBS. 



217 





FUTURE. 




Je ser virai 


tu ser viras 


il ser vira 


nous ser virons 


vous ser virez 

CONDITIONAL. 


ils ser viront 


Je ser virais 


tu ser virais 


il ser virait 


nous ser virions 


vous ser viriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


ils ser viraient 




ser s 


qu'il ser we 


ser wns 


ser vez 


qu'ils ser vent 




SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


Que je serwe 


que tu ser ves 


qu'il ser we 


que nous ser vions 


que vous serviez 


qu'ils eer vent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

Que je ser visse que tu ser visses qu'il ser vit 

que nous ser vissions que vous ser vissiez qu'ils ser visscnt 
Conjugate after the same manner : 

Desservir, to clear the table, to do an ill office to somebody. 
Se servir, to make use, to use. 
The compound tenses of servir and desservir, are conjugated with 
Avoir ; those of se servir, with Etre. 
Asservir, to subject, is regular, and conjugated lUkefinir. 



Inf. T envr 



Tenir To Hold. 

Part. Pres. T enant Part. Past, T enu 



Je t iens 
noiis t enons 



Je t enais 
nous t enions 



Je tww 
nous t inmes 



tu t iens 


il t ient 


VOUS t 67162 


ils t iennent 


IMPERFECT. 




tu t enais 


il t e«,a# 


vous t eniez 


ils t enaient 


PRETERIT DEFINITE. 




tutins 


il t m£ 


vous t intes 


ils tinrent 


1 





213 



ON THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 





FUTURE. 




Je tiendrai 


tu t iendras 


il t iendra 


nous t iendrons 


vous t icndrcz 

CONDITIONAL. 


ils t kndront 


Je t icndrais 


tu t nndrais 


il t iendrait 


nous 1 i' :,drions 


vous tu'hdriiZ 

IMPERATIVE. 


ils Xhndraient 




t iens 


qu'il t fams 


tenons 




qu'ils tic intent 




SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


Que je 1 


que tu t if lines 


qu*il t ;'( , «7)<- 


que nous i ' -■■ ' 


que vous 1 1 
B1 r.irx. 1 ; 


qu'ils t ft /(/(. n| 


Que je t 


que tn t i 
qae vous t 


qu'il t 

qu'ils I 



The oompoui bo have 

Conjugate after the Bamo manner: 



: entertain. 

■. to Inten 
*Mainienir, t<> maintain. 
succeed ill. 
Main. 
. to proc i (ram. 

/' ' ■. : i prevent, t<> inf. >rru. 

/' to .'Wain. 

-, to sustain, to support. 

In r. cnllort. 

i) r.iiKinbcr. 
*s>d>r, nir, tu relieve, 
•. to aiotain. i come unexpectedly, 

me. 
Those of the above verhe, which are marked with un asterlak ("^ 
ted in their compound ten I and tho 



. to happen. 
< , to circumvent 

i. tain. 

i contravene. 

*Depr&vmir, to un prepossess. 
/> ' :r, to 

■ Lain. 



VERBS. 



219 



Advenir, to happen, is only used in the third person singular of the 
present of the indicative, as s'il adcient, if it happens. 

Provenir, to proceed from, is only employed in its third persons sin- 
gular and plural. 



Inf. Vet ir 


Part. Pres. Vet awrf 

PRESENT. 


Part. Pas 


Je vet s 
nous vet ons 


tu vet S 
vous vet ez 

IMPERFECT. 


il vet 

ils vet ent 


Je vet aia 
nous vet ions 


tu vet ais 
vous vet iez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE 


il vet ait 
ils vet aient 


Je vet is 
nous vet hues 


tu vet is 
vous vet ites 

FUTURE. 


il vet it 
ils vet irent 


Je vet irai 
nous vet irons 


tu vet iras 
vous vet irez 

CONDITIONAL. 


il vet ira 
ils vet i«>ft£ 


Je vet irais 
nous vet irions 


tu vet irais 
vous vet iriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


il vet irait 
' ils vet ir aient 


vet ores 


vet s 

vet ez 


qu'il vet 
qu'ils vet ent 




SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


Que je vet e 
que nous vet ions 


que tu vet es 
que vous vet iez 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 


qu'il vet 
qu'ils vet ent 


Que je vet isse 
que nous vet issions 


que tu vet isses 
que vous vet issiez 


qu'il vet it 
qu'ils vet me?j£ 



The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have 



220 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Conjugate after the same manner : 
11 cttir, to clothe. Se velir, to dress, or clothe one's self. 

Devetir, to strip, to undress. Si deoetir, to divest one's self. 

The compound tenses of se dCcetlr, are conjugated with Eire, to be. 
as all pronominal verbs are. 



III. TI1IUD CONJUGATION'. 

S'asseoir To Sit doxon. 

Inf. S'asaeoir Pabt. Pbes. S'asseyant Past. Past. 



siadfl 

Uuus nous a.- - 



Je in';'. 






PBB8BNT. 

tu t'aaE 

vous vous asst yez 

DOT : 

tu t'asseyata 

rui.i , ,:i i !■:.! imi i:. 
I 
VOUfl 



sded 

ilss'asseyent 
or ils b'asseient 



yait 
aoyaieat 



■ 



1 1 . 
or je m'aneiera] tu t'a 

or je : tu t ;t 

or ootua ooufl M--i -rona voua 



il s'asscvcra 
dera 

ViTDUt 

lieront 
Bieroat 



orjfl ■ 



dittos \i.. 

il B'aflseyenil 
il B'n— oinrnH 

rairiit 



* tenuent 

rairut 



VEEBS. 221 

IMPERATIVE. 

-toi qu'il s'asseye 

or qu'il s'asseic 
asseyons-nous asseyez-vous qu'ils s'asseyent 

or qu'ils s'asseient 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
Que je m'asseye que tu t'asseyes qu'il s'asseye 

or que je m'asseie or que tu t'asseies or qu'il s'asseic 

que nous nous asseyions que vous vous asseyiez qu'ils s'asseyent 

or qu'ils s'asseient 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

Que je m'assisse que tu t'assisses qu'il s'assit 

que nous nous assissions que vous vous assissiez qu'ils s'assissent 

Conjugate after the same manner, se rasseoir, to sit down again. 

The compound tenses of these two verbs are conjugated with Etre, 
to be, as all pronominal verbs are. 

Conjugate after the same manner, without the second pronoun me, 
te, se, etc., asseoir, to sit down. 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to havo. 



Choir To Fall. 

This verb is not used except in the present of the infinitive. 



Dechoir To Decay. 

This verb is seldom used, except in the present of the infinitive 
and in its compound tenses, which are conjugated sometimes with 
Etre, sometimes with Avoir. 



Echoir To fall, to exjrire, to be due, to fall due. 

This verb is only used in the third person of the indicative, il echoit, 
sometimes pronounced il echet ; in il ecliut, in il echerra, in il 
eclierrait, in qu'il echut, etc., in echoir, in echeant, in ecliu, and in the 
compound tenses, which are conjugated sometimes with Avoir, some- 
times with Etre. 



222 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Falloir 
11 faut 

H fallait 

J? fallut 

dra 

11 faudrait 



To be necessary. 

PKESENT. 

it is necessary 

IMPERFECT. 

it was necessary 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

it was necessary 
FUTURE. 

it shall or will be necessary 

CONDITIONAL. 

(it should, would, or might be 
' necessary 



SUClUNi'in i. PRESENT. 
faille that it may be neo 

,', B PAST. 
■'ill'it that it might be necessary 

The compound tenses of this verb, I unip irsonal and defective) are 
I by the addition of its partidpl to tin- third person 

iias been necessary. e:r. 
ft, f/OU must, they must, etc., 

adered by it mutt ''"it I— it mutt that If. etc ; the verb which 
follows is (nit in the subjunctive mood, and in the person indicated 
by the personal pronoun, which is before mutt in English, as I 
tnu-t write, ; you must drink, il faut que tout 






To M ••>;>. 



\ uvoir 






tvsia 
mvioni 



I'\kt. I'lii.s. Moiivant 

FBI -int. 
to DO 

v.'iis niouvez 

IMl'I ' 

tu niouvnis 

louvlei 



Part. Pa<jt, Mu 



il meat 

ils nieuvcni. 



il moavait 

ils nioiivaient 



Je mus 
nous miimes 



J e mouvrai 
nous mouvrons 



Je ruouvrais 
nous mouvrions 



mouvons 

Que je meuve 

que nous mouvions 

Que je niusse 

que nous mussions 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

tu mus 
vous mutes 

FUTURE. 

tu mouvras 
vous mouvrez 

CONDITIONAL, 
tu mouvrais 
vous mouvriez 

IMPERATIVE. 



il mut 
ils murent 



il mouvra 
ils mouvront 



il mouvrait 
ils mouvraient 



mouvez 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESEN 

que tu meuves 
que vous mouviez 



qu'il meuve 
qu'ils meuvent 



qu'il meuve 
qu'ils meuvent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

que tu musses qu'il mut 



que vous mussiez qu'ils mussent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 
Conjugate after the same manner : 

Emouvoir, to move. Promouvoir, to promote. 

S'emouvoir, to be concerned. 
The compound tenses of s'emouvoir are conjugated with Etre. 
Promouvoir, is only used in the present of the infinitive and in the 
compound tenses. 



Pleuvoir 



To Rain. 



Plewcoii 



Pleuvant 



Plu 



INFINITIVE. 

to rain 

PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

raining 

PARTICIPLE PAST 

rained 



22-t 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Bpleut 
IlpUuzait 
Bplut 
B pie u era 

\ 



PRESENT. 

it rains, does rain, or is raining 

IMPERFECT. 

it rained, did rain, or was raining 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

it rained, or did rain. 

FUTURE. 

it will rain 

CONDITIONAL,. 

it would rain 
SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

that it may nun 

strut nvtiyk r 

that it might rain 



Qui 

impound tenses of the above unipersonal verb are formed by 
[on <>f its participle passive, plu, to the third person ningnlai 
of the simple t n , it has rained, etc 



1'ocnvom 



F > i ' 



Inf. I'ourv.iir 
I rvois 

uoua ponrvoyons 
J.' ponn 



J.- pour? us 

nous pourvumes 



Pabt. Pbb& Poarvoyant Part. Past. Pmirvu 



I'ki.-i.n r. 
tu pom 

MP] 
tu poor! 

FBI i i.Kil DKVUUTH. 



ii po or vo i t 
irvoieut 



tu |-uirvus 



il ponrvoyait 
ils ponn 

il poorvot 
ils ponrvnreat 



Js ponrvoini 

irvoirons 



tu ponn 

unrobes 



il ponrvoira 
il poarvoiront 



VERBS. 



225 



Je pourvoirais 
nous pourvoirions 



pourvoyons 

Que je pourvoie 

que nous pourvoyions 

Que je pourvusse 
que nous pourvussions 
The compound 



il pourvoirait 
ils pourvoiraient 

qu'il pourvoie 
qu'ils pourvoient 



CONDITIONAL. 

tu pourvoirais 
vous pourvoiriez 

IMPERATIVE. 

pourvois 
pourvoyez 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

que tu pourvoies qu'il pourvoie 

que vous pourvoyiez qu'ils pourvoient 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST, 
que tu pourvusses qu'il pourvut 

que vous pourvussiez qu'ils pourvussent 

are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 



Pouvoir To be able. 

Inf. Pouvoir Part. Pres. Pouvant Part. Past, Pu 

present. 



Je puis or je peux 


tu peux 


il peut 


nous pouvons 


vous pouvez 

IMPERFECT. 


ils peuvent 


Je pouvais 


tu pouvais 


il pouvait 


nous pouvions 


vous pouviez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE 


ils pouvaient 


Je pus 


tupus 


il put 


nous p times 


vous piites 

FUTURE. 


ils purent 


Je pourrai 


tu pourras 


il pourra 


nous pourrons 


vous pourrez 

CONDITIONAL. 


ils pourront 


Je pourrais 


tu pourrais 


il pourrait 


nous pourrions 


vous pourriez 


ils pourraient 




SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


Que je puisse 


que tu puisss 


qu'il puisse 


que nous puissions 


que vous puissiez 
SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 


qu'ils puissent 


Que je pusse 


que tu pusses 


qu'il put 


que nous pussions 


que vous pussiez 


qu'ils pussent 



The compound tenses are conjugate! with Avoir, to have. 
10* 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Inf. Savoir 


Part. Pres. Sachant 

PRESENT. 


Part. Past. 


Je saia 


tu sais 


il sait 


nous savons 


vous savez 

IMFEKFECT. 


ils savent 


Je 6avais 


tu savais 


il savait 


nous savions 


vous saviez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE 


ils savaient 


Je sua 


tu sua 


il snt 


nous sumcs 


vous sutes 

FUTURE. 


ils surent 


Je saurai 


tu sauraa 


il saura 


nous still mns 


vous saurez 

l nM.riln.VAL. 


ils sauront 


Je sau mis 


tu >aurais 


il saurait 


nous sauriuiis 


vous sau rii-z 

IMIM.KATlVi;. 


ils saura'unt 




■Ufa 


qu'il sache 


sacbons 


sachcz 


qu'ils sacbent 




N< 1 IVK I'Kl 


Quoje sache 


OJM tu saches 


< j n i I sache 


quo nous sachions 


que vous Mchlfli 
SUBJUNCTIVE TAST. 


qu'ils sachent 




que tu susses 


qu*B sut 


quo nous suasions 


que root ni 


qu'ils Bussent 



The compound tenses are OOnjngftted with Avoir, to have. 

S<irt'ir, to know, must not l>e con foun ded with .■■•■nnitrr, to know. 
C'liwutre is mostly osed in tlie Dense of t<> be nrquainted with; and 
tmtkr, to know ly heart. 



VERBS. 



2,27 



Inf. Seoir 



II sied 



Seoir To Jit, to become, to Jit well. 

Pakt. Pres. Seyant Part. Past, Sis 



11 seyait it fitted 



11 siera it will fit 



mit it would 



PRESENT. 

its sieent 

IMPERFECT. 

Us seyaient 

FUTURE. 

Us sieront 

CONDITIONAL. 

Us sieraient 



they fit 
they fitted 
they will fit. 
they would fit 
that they may fit 



SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

tyu'U siee that it may fit qu'Us sieent 

This verb, which is only employed in the third person of the singu- 
lar, and of the plural of some tenses, has no compound tenses. 



Surseoir " To reprieve, to put off . 

This verb is seldom used, except in the present of the infinitive. 



Inf. Valoir 


Part. Pres. Valant 

PRESENT 


Part. Past 


Je vaus 


tu vaux 


il vaut 


nous valons 


vous valez 

IMPERFECT. 


ils valent 


Je valais 


tu valais 


il valait 


nous valions 


vous valiez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE 


ils valaieut 


Je valus 


tu valus 


il valut 


nous valumes 


vous valutes 


ils valurent 



228 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 





FUTCKE. 




Je vaadrai 


1u vaudras 


il vaudra 


nous vaudrons 


vous vaudrcz 

CONDITIONAL. 


ils vaudront 


%Te vaudraig 


tu vaudrais 


il vaudrait 


nous vaudrions 


vous vaudriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


ils vaudraient 




vaux 


qu'il Yaffle 


valons 


vales 


qu'ils vaillent 




PCBJENCTIVE TKESENT. 


Qui- je raffle 


quo tu vailles 


qu'il vaille 


que nous valions 


alioz 


qu'ils vaillent 



BCTUi \nrvi: iwst. 
Que je valusse que tu vain qu'il valut 

ratusaiei qu'ils valussent 

Tin- oompoui I ited with .1 ■. to have. 

• ionjugate after •'. 

retorn like for like. to be equivalent. 

/' /' ir, t.. prevaJL 

que tu pr,'rale8 
■ilt, que nougpr'r.i'i'iif, q<if torn 



Ink \'...r 


Past. Pbbs. Voyant 


Part Pabi 


Je vojs 


tU \' 


il vuit 


nous voyons 


IM1-1 !. 


lent 


.!.• v-nais 


t 1 \ 


il voyalt 


vions 


i-ui.Ti:i:n Q] 


ils voynient 


Je vii 


tu rlfl 


il fit 


nous vimea 


vous ■ 


lis vir.-nt 



VERBS. 



229 



FUTURE, 
tu verras il verra 

vous verrez ils verront 

CONDITIONAL. 

tu verrais il verrait 

vous verriez ils verraient 

IMPERATIVE. 

vois qu'il voie 

voyez qu'ils voient 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

que tu voies qu'il voie 

que vous voyiez qu'ils voient . 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

que tu visses qu'il vit 

que vous vissiez qu'ils vissent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 

Conjugate after the same manner : 
Revoir, to see again. Entrevoir, to have a glimpse of. 



Je verrai 
nous verrons 



Je verrais 
nous verrions 



voyons 

Que je voie 

que nous voyions 

Que je visse 
que nous vissions 



Prevoir To Foresee. 
This verb is conjugated like Voir, to see, except in the future and 
in the present of the conditional. 

FUTURE. 

Je prevoirai tu prevoiras il prevoira 

nous prevoirons vous prevoirez ils prevoiront 

conditional. 

Je prevoirais tu prevoirais il prevoirait 

nous prevoirions vous prevoiriez ils prevoiraient 



Vouloir 



To be willing. 



Inf. Vouloir 



Je veux 
nous voulons 



Je voulais 
nous voulions 



Part. Pres. Voulant 
PRESENT. 

tu veux 
vous voulez 

IMPERFECT. 

tu voulais 
vous vouliez 



Part. Pasv "Voulu 



II veut 
ils veulent 



il voulait 
ils voulaient 



230 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Je voulus 
nous voulurnes 



Je voudrai 
nous voiulrons 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

tu voulus 
vous voulutes 

FUTURE, 
tu voudras 
vous voudrez 



il voulut 
ils voulurent 



il voudra 
ils voudront 



Je voudrais 
nous voudrions 



CONDITIONAL, 
tu voudrais il voudrait 

vous voudricz ils voudxaient 

IMKERATIVE. 

veuillt ■/. (is the only person used) 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 



Que je veuillc 


que tu venilles 


qu'il veuille 


que nous voulions 


que vous vouliez 
8UBJCN< Tivi: PAST. 


qu'ils vtmillent 




que tu too! 


<iu'il voulut 


que nous roulaqsious que vous touIube 


(lu'ils voulaaBent 




Compound leasee with A 






IV. — FOURTH OOHJUa \:I0N. 


B \ttki: 


To Beat. 


Ink. Bsttre 


Part. I'ki & I'.'.-tant 

l'Kl 


Pabt. Past, Battu 


' 


tu ' 


il l»nt 


DDOB buttons 


TOUS 

DCPSB] m r. 


ils batten! 


Je l'attais 


tu 1 


il l>attait 


-' ' i>n3 


row 1 

i'i;i i i BIX D 


ils Ivattaii-nt 


Je battle 


tu 1'. 


il hattit 


none bettl 


roue ! 

I.K. 


ils battirent 


Je i>. ttnJ 


tu b ■ 


il l.attra 


it rone 


Mttn-z 


ils battront 



VERBS. 



231 



Je battrais 
nous battrions 



battons 



Que je batte 



CONDITIONAL. 




tu battrais 


il battrait 


vous battriez 


Us battraient 


IMPERATIVE. 




bats 


qu'il batte 


battez 


qu'ils battent 


SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


que tu battes 


qu'il batte 



que nous battions que vous battiez 



qu'ils battent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

Que je battisse que tu battisses qu'il battit 

que nous battissions que vous battissiez qu'ils battissent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 

Conjugate after the same manner : 

Abattre, to pull down. Bebattre, to beat again. 

Combative, to fight. S'ebattre, to make or be merry. 

Debattre, to debate. Se debattre, to struggle. 

Babattre, to pull down again, to abate. 

The compound tenses of s'ebattre and se debattre, are conjugated 
with Eire, to be. 



BoiftE 




To Drink. 


Inf. Boire 


Part. Pres. Buvant 

PRESENT. 


Part. Past, By 


Je bois 


tu bois 


il boit 


nous buvons 


vous buvez 

IMPERFECT. 


ils boivent 


Je buvais 


tu buvais 


il buvait 


nous buvions 


vous buviez 


ils buvaient 




PRETERIT DEFINITE. 


Je bus 


tu bus 


ilbut 


nous biimes 


vous biites 

FUTURE. 


ils burent 


Je boirai 


tu boiras 


ii boira 


nous boirons 


vous boirez 


ils boiront 



232 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 





COXDITIONAL. 




Je boirais 


tu boirais 


il boirait 


nous boixions 


vous boiriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


ils boiraient 




bois 


qu'il boive 


buvons 


buvoz 


qu'ils boivent 




SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


Que je boive 


que tu boives 


qu'il boive 


que nous buvions 


que vous buries 
BURJIUICUVJH PAST. 


qu'ils boivent 


Que je busse 


que tu boss 


qu'il but 


que Qoafl i:ii— i 11- 


que VOUS busdes 


qu'ils bussent 



'I'll.- compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 
Conjugate aft.-r the Bame manner, reboire, to drink again. 






Je clos 



■ '.irons 



tu clos 

l ii ORB. 

' ■ 
vous < 



To < I 

PART. Past, Clos 
il clot 

il don 
Us cloront 



Je d< I tu c] il «-1 • >r:i i t 

orions il.- oloraient 

only ii-.-. l in the above few i. ■ 
; n.l in all tli<- compound tenses, which an- formed with 
■ bare 
Conjugate after 1 to inclose. 



. i i.i: To < 'onclude. 

adore Pars I'm-. Conduant Past. Past, Couclu 



nous coucluons 



l 



il oonclut 

lu. -at 



VEEBS. 



233 



Je concluais 
nous conclui'ons 



Je conclus 
nous eonclumes 



IMPERFECT. 

tu concluais 
vous conclui'ez 

PEETEEIT DEFINITE. 

tu conclus 
vous concludes 



il concluait 
ils concluaient 



il conclut 
ils conclurent 



Je conclurai 
nous conclurons 



FUTUBE. 

tu concluras 
vous conclurez 



il conclura 
ils concluront 



Je conclurais 
nous conclurions 



CONDITIONAL. 

tu conclurais 
vous concluriez 



il conclurait 
ils concluraient 



concluons 



Que je conclue 
que nous conclui'ons 



Que je conclusse 



IMPKEATIVE. 

conclus 
concluez 

SUBJUNCTIVE PEESENT. 

que tu conclues 
que vous conclui'ez 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 



qu'il conclue 
qu'ils concluent 

qu'il conclue 
qu'ils concluent 



que tu conciusses qu'il conclut 

que nous conclussions que vous conclussiez qu'ils conclussent 
The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 
Conj ugate after the same manner, exclure, to exclude. 



CONFIRE 



To Pickle. 



Inf. Conf ire 



Part. Pees. Conf isant 



Paht. Past, Conf it 



Je conf is 
nous conf isons 



Je conf isais 
nous conf 



PEESENT. 

tu conf is 
vous conf isez 

IMPERFECT. 

tu conf isais 
vous conf isiez 



il conf it 
ils conf ient 



il conf isait 
ils conf isaient 



234 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Je conf is 
nous conf imes 



Je conf irai 
nous conf irons 



Je conf trots 
nous conf irions 



conf isons 



Que jo c 
que nous eon! 



PRETERIT DEFIX] 

tu conf is 
vous conf ites 

FUTURE. 

tu conf iras 
vous conf in 2 

CONDITIONAL. 

tu conf irais 
vous conf ii-iz 

IMPERATIVE. 

conf is 



il conf it 

ils conf ircnt 



il conf ira 
ils conf iront 



il conf iraii 
ils conf indent 

qu'il conf ise 
qu'ils conf fa nt 



SUB.irMin k PBB8KNT. 

que tu conf UM qu'il conf fa] 

que vous coni' fa! a qu'ils conf famt 



8tTn.ir.win k past. 
Que je conf isse qu'il conf <7 

f i -■■' : qu'ils conf issent 
impound tensee are conju jal id with 4wir, to have, 
oner : 
JSuj/irc, to i" circumciae 



I.NK. C 



Je couds 
nous cousons 



luatona 



1 



7".. S 



Part. P 

RBI 
lUdfl 

vous e 

DOT ' 

luaiea 



Part. Past, Coubu 



il ooud 

.■ 



il oousait 

ils COUslli. lit 



Je cougia 
nous o 



ER] 1 !>!.! IM I 1.. 

il cuusit 
He oousirent 



VERBS. 



235 





FUTCEE. 




Je coudrai 


tu coudras 


il coudra 


nous coudrons 


vous coudrez 

CONDITIONAL. 


ils coudront 


Je coudrais 


tu coudrais 


il coudrait 


nous coudrioDg 


vous coudriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


ils coudraient 




couds 


qu'il couse 


cousona 


cousez 


qu'ils cousent 




SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


que je cou3e 


que tu couses 


qu'il couse 


que nous cousions 


que vous cousiez 


qu'ils cousent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

que je cousisse que tu cousisses qu'il cousit 

que nous cousissions que vous cousissiez qu'ils cousissent. 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 

Conjugate after the same manner : 

Dccoudre, to rip. Recoudre, to sew again. 



Inf. Croire 

Je crois 
nous croyons 

Je croyais 
nous croyions 

Je crus 
nous crdmes 

Je croirai 
nous croirons 



CroipvE To Believe. 

Part. Pees. Croyant Part. Past, Cru 



PEESENT. 

tu crois 
vous croyez 

IMPERFECT. 

tu croyais 
vous croyiez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

tu crus 
vous criites 

FUTURE. 

tu croiras 
vous croirez 



il croit 
ils croient 



il croyait 
ils croyaient 



il crut 
ils crurent 



il croira 
ils croiront 



236 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Je croirais 
nous croirions 



croyons 

Queje croic 

que nous crovi<>us 

Que je crusse 
que nous missions 



CONDITIONAL. 

tu croirais 
vous croiriez 

IMPERATIVE. 

crois 
croyez 



il croirait 
iis croiraient 

qu'il croie 
qu'ils croient 



SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
que tu CTCdee 
que vous croyiez 

BUBJUNCTIVK PAST. 

que tu crusses 
que vous crussiez 



qu'il croie 

qu'ils croient 

qu'il criit 
qu'ils croBBent 



Ckoitke 



To Grow. 



Int. t'roitre 


Part. Pres. Croissant 
PBBSKBT. 


Part. Pa 


Je crois 


tu crois 


il croit 


nous croiasons 


vous croisscz 

IMITIM-I-CT. 


Us eraisBent 




tu en 


il croissait 


nous croissions 


Vii . 

TRET: 


ils croia 




tU ITU8 


il .-rut 


DOW 'Tumea 


vons i 

KIT 


iis crQrent 


Je ipiitrai 


tU CT- 


il croitra 


nous cr<> 


vnus croltrei 

DITiaXAX. 


ils croi trout 


•r:iis 


tu eroltraifl 


il rnrtrait 


nous croitri'me 


vouscn'itrii/. 

II\ K. 


ils croitraii-nt 




croie 


i[u'i! en 




croisst-z 


qu'ils ■ ' 



VERBS. 



237 



Que je croisse 
que nous croissions 



SUBJUNCTIVE PP.ESENT. 

que tu croisses 
que vous croissiez 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 



qu'il coisse 
qu'ils croissent 



quejecriisse que tu crusses qu'il crut 

que nous criissions que vous crdssiez qu'ils crussent 

The compound tenses are conjugated sometimes with Avoir, some- 
times with Etre ; with Avoir, when it expresses the action of grow- 
ing, and with Etre, when it denotes the state in which one is. 

Conjugate after the same manner : 

Accroitre, to increase. DecroUrc, to decrease. 



Inf. Dire 



Je dis 
nous 



Je disais 
nous disions 



Je dis 
nous dimes 



Je dirai 
nous dirons 



Je dirais 
nous dirions 



disons 

Que jedise 
que nous disions 



Dire To Say. 

Part. Pees. Disant 

PRESENT. 



Part. Past, Dit 



tu dis 


ildit 


vous dites 


ils disent 


IMPERFECT. 




tu disais 


il disait 


vous disiez 


ils disaient 


PRETERIT DEFINITE. 




tu dis 


ildit 


vous dites 


ils dirent 


FUTURE. 




tu diras 


il dira 


vous direz 


ils diront 


CONDITIONAL. 




tu dirais 


il dirait 


vous diriez 


ils diraient 


IMPERATIVE. 




dis 


qu'il dise 


dites 


qu'ils disent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

que tu discs qu'il dise 

que vous disie?. qu'ils disent 



238 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 
que je disse que tu dieses qu'il dit 

que nous dissions que vous dissiez qu*ils disseat 

Tlie compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to hare. 
Conjugate after the same manner, redire, to say agaiu, 
The following verhs, 

Contredire, to contradict. Medire, to slander, 

Dedi to disown, Predire, to foretell, 

Interdire, to interdict, Se d'dire, to recant, 

Maudire, to curse, 
arc also conjugated like- dire, except in the second person plural of the 
indicative present, an 1 the imperative, in which they make 

Mi 

Did PrSd 

Di 
M 

Maudire, takes two te In mtmdmani : in the three persons plural 

t, r<"/-< m<i'n:i in all the persons 

fee.; in the third person singular, of qu'il ma\ 

and also in the three persons plural, of </ di tti o n *, efeOj 

•!n-r persons and tenses it is oonjugated like dire. 



Eclork To ' p . to open. 

Inf. l>lore PABT. Past. pAdoe 



11 .'riot 




i!- ecloseaJ 




lo\\T, 


iis gcloronl 



II .'riorait loraienf 

■ have. 



VEEBS. 



239 



E.crire To Write. 

Inf. Ecr ire Part. Pres. Ecr ivant Part. Past, Ecr it 



J'ecr is 
nous ecr i 



J'ecr ivais 
nous ecr iviom 



J'ecr iuw 
nous ecr ivimes 



PRESENT. 

tu ecr is 
vous ecr ioez 

IMPERFECT. 

tu ecr ivais 
vous ecr iviez 



il ecr it 
ils ecr £«?#,£ 



il ecr £»<z££ 
ils ecr ivaient 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

tu ecr ivis il ecr ivit 



vous ecr ivites 



ils ecr icirent 



J'ecr ira* 
nous ecr irons 



FUTURE. 

tu ecr iras 
vous ecr ires 



il ecr ira 
ils ecr £ron£ 



J'ecr irais 
nous ecr m<??w 



CONDITIONAL. 

tu ecr irais 
vous ecr iriez 



il ecr i'ra# 
ils ecr iraient 



ecr iwras 



Que j'ecr ive 

que nous ecr iz>i0?is 



IMPERATIVE. 

ecr is 
ecr tofij 



qu'il ecr ive 
qu'ils ecr ivent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

que tu ecr iws qu'il ecr ive 

que vous ecr iviez qu'ils ecr ivent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 
Que j'ecr ivisse que tu ecr ivisses qu'il ecr ivit 

que nous ecr ivissions que vous ecr ivissisz qu'ils ecr idssent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 

Conjugate after the same manner : 

Circonscrire, to circumscribe. Proscrire, to proscribe. 

Decrire, to describe. Recrire, to -write again. 

Inscrire, to inscribe. Souscrire, to subscribe. 

Prescrire, to prescribe. Transcrire, to transcribe. 



240 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Ln'F. Faire 



Faire To ?nuke, to do, to cause. 

Part. Pees. Faisaut Part. Past, Fait 



Je fais 
nous faisons 



J<j faisais 
nous t'aisions 



Je fis 
nous firnea 



Je feral 

uiru^ l'l-rnns 



Jo fcrais 



bisons 



(Same 






PRESENT. 




tu fais 


ilfait 


vous faites 


ils font 


IMPERFECT. 




tu faisais 


il faisait 


vous faisiez 


ils faisaienl 



PRETERIT DEFINITE, 
tu fis i! fit 

vous fitcs Us firent 



FUTURK. 




tu ferns 


U fera 


vous fore/. 


ils fcront 


« "NPITMN \\.. 




' 


fl ferait 


vous feriea 


ils feraient 


IMI'KKA 11 Vi:. 




fais 


(pi'il fosse 




qu'ils faonont 



srniiN. rivr. PBB8BHT. 

que tu : quU fasse 

quill fassent 

BCRii \ •: i\ i: PAST. 

iju'il fit 

que vous Usedi /. <i«i"ils finest 



have. 

Miner: 



J> to undo, 

to undo i 



Rtftire, to do again. 

. to s.itisfy. 

o moon 



VEKBS. 



241 



Inf. Frire 



Fkirb 



To Ft 



>■</• 



Part. Past, Frit 



Jefris 



Je frirai 
nous frirons 



Je Mrais 
nous fririons 



ilfrit 



il frira 
ils friront 



il frirait 
ils friraient 



tufris 

FUTURE, 
tu friras 
vous frirez 

CONDITIONAL, 
tu frirais 
vous fririez 

IMPERATIVE. 

Ms 

This verb, (defective) is only used in the above few persons and ten- 
ses, and in all the compound tenses, which are formed with Avoir. 

To supply the persons and tenses which are wanting, the different 
tenses oifaire, to make, with the infinitive present of frire, are used; 
as, nous faisons frire, eous fadtes frire, ils font frire, etc 



Joindre To Join. 

Inf. Joi noire Part. Pres. Joi gnant Part. Past, Joi nt 



Je joi ns 


tujoi ns 


il joint 


nous joi gnons 


vous joi gnez 

IMPERFECT. 


ils joi gnent 


Je joi gnais 


tujoi gncds 


il joi gnait 


nous joi gnions 


vous joi gniez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE 


ils joi gnaient 


Je joi gnis 


tujoi gnis 


il joi gnit 


nous joi gnimes 


vous joi griites 

FUTURE, 


ils joi gnirent 


Je Joi ndrai 


tu joi ndras 


il joi ndra 


nous joi ndrons 


vous joi ndrez 
11 


ils joi ndront 



242 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Je joi ndrais 


CONDITIONAL. 

tu joi ndrais 


il joi ndrait 


nousjoj ndrions 


vous joi ndricz 

IMPERATIVE. 


ils joi ndraient 




joi ns 


qu'il joi #n« 


ioi gnona 


joi gncz 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT 


qu'ilsjoi #«<7tf 


Que je joi gne 


que tu joi gnat 


qu'il joi <jr«e 


que nous joi gniona 


que vous joi gniea 


qu'ilsjoi y//i7/< 



SUBJUNCTIVE FAST. 

Quej. quetujoip qu'il joi gn'd 

que nous joi gnissiotu que voue joi ^iwmu b qu'ils joi gidsscnt 

Compound b uses are conjugated with .1. •/ ■•. to lave. 
Conjugate, after the same manner, all verbs whose present of the 
Infinitive ends 

as drr, to f>'ar. 

as Pei to paint. 

as iV to dawn. 



i,iii,ilrr 



loindn as 

Attn i 

'■> overtake. 

('< imlrr. to gbd. 

to constrain, ; 



Eteindre, to put out, to extinguish. 
. to feign, to pretend. 

v. to pity. 

to r. strain. 
2fi indre, to dye. 



Ini\ Lire 



Je lis 

nous lisons 



.Tp linaia 
nous lisions 



Ltbi To h 

I'akt. l'ni.s. [isanl I'mjt. Past, 



tu lis 


il lit 




ils lisrnt 






tu Usais 


il li^.it 


VOUS 1 


ils lisaleni 



VERBS. 



243 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



." e lus 


tulus 


illut 


nous lumes 


vous lutes 

FUTURE. 


lis lurent 


Je lirai 


tu liras 


'jllira 


nous lirons 


vous lirez 

CONDITIONAL. 


ils liront 


Je lirais 


tu lirais 


il lirait 


nous lirions 


vous liriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


ils liraient 




lis 


qu'il lise 


lisons 


lisez 


qu'ils lisent 




SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


Que je lise 


que tu lises 


qu'il lise 


que nous lisions 


que vous lisiez 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 


qu'ils lisent 


Que je lusse 


que tulusses 


qu'il lut 


que nous lussions 


que vous lussiez 


qu'ils * .ssent 



The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 
Conj agate after the same manner : 

Belire, to read again. Mire, to elect. 



Mettre To Put. 

Inf. Mettre Part. Pres. Mettant Part. Past, Mis 



Je mets 
nous mettons 



Je mettais 
nous mettions 



Je mis 
nous mimes 



PRESENT. 

tu mets 
vous mettez 

IMPERFECT, 
tu mettais 



il met 

ils mettent 



il mettait 
vous mettiez ils mettaient 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

tu mis il mit 

vous mites ils mirent 



214 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH.. 





TXTCKE. 




Je mettrai 


tu mettras 


il mettra 


nous niettrons 


vous mettrez 

CONDITIONAL. 


ils mettront 


Je mettrais 


tu mettrais 


il mettrait 


nous mettrions 


vous mettriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


Us mettraient 




mets 


qu'il mette 


mettons 


mettez 


qu'ils mettent 




8CBJVNCTIYE PRESENT. 


Que je mette 


que tu mettcs 


qu'il mette 


que nous mettions 


que vous mettiez 
BERJrNCTrVE PAST. 


qu'ils mettent 


Que je niisae 


que tu mi — 


qu'il mit 


que nous missions 


que vous KUBBiea 


qu'ils missent 



Compo un d teasel ue oonjugated with Avoir, to have. 

Conjugate after the kdn mannm" 
Ad m e tt r e, to admit. Promtttre, to promise. 

tbmmettre, toeommii Bemettre, to pat again, to set again, 

to replace. 
Dtmettrt, to disjoint, to put out. Otume ttr e, to submit. 

Oiii'ttn. to <unit. Tranviuttrc, to transmit. 

Pinu<ttr< , to permit u,t(rr, to resign. 

S'thtrfm<ttrr, t<> Inter] 
Tlu- two last havo their compound tenses conjugated with .E(r«. 



M'Hdre To Grind. 

Ixp. Moudre Part. Pre*. Moulant Part. Past, Moulu 



Je moods 
nous moulone 



tn mouds 
▼ous moulc-z 



il moud 
ils moulent 



Je ITl'illais 

nous moulioos 



ikpei:fi:(T. 
tn moulnis 
vous mouHcz 



il moulait 
ils mouluiv-ct 



VERBS. 



245 



Je moulus 
nous moulumes 



Je moudrai 
nous moudrons 



Je moudrais 
nous moudrions 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

tu moulus il moulut 

vous mouliites ils moulurent 



moulons 



Que je moule 
que nous moulions 



FUTURE, 
tu moudras 
vous moudrez 

CONDITIONAL. 

tu moudrais 
vous moudriez 

IMPERATIVE, 
mouds 
moulez 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 



il moudra 
ils moudront 



il moudrait 
ils moudraient 



qu'il moule 
qu'ils moulent 



que tu moules 
que vous mouliez 



qu'il moule 
qu*ils moulent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

Que je moulusse, que tu moulusses qu'il moulut 

que nous moulussions que vous moulussiez qu'ils moulussent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 

Conjugate after the same manner : 
Remoudre, to grind again. Emoudre, to grind, to whet. 



Inf. Naitre 

Je nais 
nous naissons 

Je naissais 
nous naissions 

Je naquis 
nous naquimes 



Naitre To be born. 

Part. Pres. Naissant Part. Past, Ne 

PRESENT. 



tu nais 
vous naissez 

IMPERFECT. 

tu naissais 
vous naissiez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE, 
tu naquis 
vous naquites 



il nait 

ils naissent 



il naissait 
ils naissaient 



il naquit 
ils naquirent 



246 



OX THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 



Je naitrai 
nous naitrons 



Je naitrais 
nous naitrions 



JTUIUJCUS. 

tu naitras 


il naltra 


vous naitrez 


ils naitront 


CONDITIONAL. 




tu naitrais 


il naitrait 


vous naitriez 


ils naitraient 


IMPERATIVE. 




nais 


qu'il naisse 


naissez 


qu'ils naissent 



suiurNcrcvE present. 
Qaeje naisse que tu naif qu'il naisse 

que nous naissiona que vous naissiez qu'ils naissent 

8tT5.ii H( ri \ i: r.vsT. 
Quej ■ naquiase que tu oaquisBee qu'il nnquit 

que nana aaquisBlona que tous naquissiea qu'ils naquieeenl 

The coiiij.«juiul tecseaare conjugated with Etre to be. 
Conjugate after tli<- Bame man] 

t<> revive. 



1.M-. Paitre 



Je ptia 

DOOfl i 



1'a'h re To Graze. 

Past. Pr.r.s. Paiasant Past. Past, Pu 

PBBBBHT. 



tu pall 



il pall 
Da palwanl 



Je paiaaaia 

ll"iis J ■n't- - !• •!..-» 



til |>:L!--;iis 
TtUl-i | 



il palaaaii 
ils paiaaaient 



'.rai 
OOUa I'aitrons 



DOU | 



tu pa ■ 

; a tr z 



( "Muiimn \i.. 



tu ] aitra i 
paitriea 



il paltra 
ils paitroni 



il i n'trait 

■ ::ii>nt 



VERBS. 



U\ 



IMPERATIVE. 



pais 



qu'il paisse 
qu'ils paissent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

Que jo paisse, quetupaisses qu'il paisse 

que nous paissions que vous paissiez qu'ils paissent 

Conj ugate after the same manner : 
Repaitre, to feed. Se repaitre, to feed one's self. 

These last two verbs have a preterit definite, and an imperfect of 
the subjunctive. 

Je repus tu repus il reput 

nous repumes vous reputes ils repurent 

Que je repusse que tu repusses qu'il reput 

que nous repussions que vous repussiez qu'ils repussent 

The compound tenses of repaitre, are conjugated with Avoir, and 
those of se repaitre, with Eire. 



Paraitre To Appear. 

Inf. Par aitre Part. Pres. Par aissant Part. Past. Par u 



Je par ais 
nous par aissons 

Je par aissais 
nous par aissions 

Je par us 
nous par umes 



tu par ais 
vous par aissez 

IMPERFECT. 

tu par aissais 
vous par aissiez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

tu par us 
vous par vies 



il par ait 

ils par aissent 



il par aissait 
ils par aissaient 



il par ut 
ils par urent 



Je par aitrai 
nous par aitrons 



Je par aitrais 
nous par aitrions 



tu par aitras 
vous par aitrez 



CONDITIONAL. 



tu par aitrais 
vous par aitriez 



il par attra 
ils par aitront 



il par aitrait 
ils par aitraient 



248 



OS THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 







IMPERATIVE. 






par cis qu'il par aisse 


par aissons 




par uissez qu'ils par aissent 

6UBJUXCTIYE PRESENT. 


Que je par aisse 


que tu par aisses qu'il par aisse 


que nous par 


aissions 


que vous pur aissiez qu'ils par aissent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

Que je par UBSt que tu par USS6S qu'il par ut 

que nous par uszions que vous par ussicz qu'ils par assent 
The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 
Conjugate after the same manner: 

i'lr, . t<> appear. litre, to recognize, to know 

' , to appear. 

I know. irattre, to appear again. 

par. S '■-/.-,./, >„/iy ;-,-, to forget one's self. 

altn . to mistake, to forget, to neglect. 
The com pound ten.-es ate conjugated with A7/v. 



[hf. n air* 



Pi.airb To Please. 

Taut. PBX8. PI maoitf Part. Past, PI u 



■ 



■ 



Je pi Ut 

1 li/TU** 



»V7l 



tu pi a is 

Vnll- pi 

IMP 

tu pi a 

VOOfl pi 



ii pi all 

Da pi aiscnt 



il pi m's 'it 
lis pi ai.ntit/it 



ran i I'- 
ll pi wf 



l i i u:K. 
tu pi ' 



ils \.\ uiritt 



il | 1 <nv.i 

Ub pi a 



VERBS. 



CONDITIONAL. 



Je pi airais 
nous pi airions 



pi aisons 



Que je pi aise 
que nous pi aisions 



tu pi airais 
vous pi airiee 



IMPERATIVE. 



pi ais 
pi aisez 



il pi air ait 

ils pi airaient 



qu'il pi aise 
qu'ilspl aisent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

que tu pi aises qu'il pi aise 

que vous pi aisiez qu'ils pi aisent 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 



Que je pi usse que tu pi usses qu'il pi fit 

que nous pi ussions que vous pi ussiez qu'ils pi ussent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 

Conjugate after the same manner: 
Complaire, to humor, to please. Se taire, to forbear talking, to be 
Deplaire, to displease. silent, to hold one's tongue. 

Taire, to conceal, to keep secret. 

The compound tenses of se taire are conjugated with Eire, to be 



Poindre To shoot forth, to dawn. 

Poindre il poin t il poindra. 



Prendre To Take. 

Inf. Prendre Part. Pres. Prenant Part. Past, Pris 



Je prends 


tu prends 


il prend 


nous prenons 


vous prenez 

IMPERFECT. 


ils prennent 


Je prenais 


tu prenais 


il prenait 


nous prenions 


vous preniez 
PRETERIT DEFINITE 


ils prenaient 


Je pris 


tu pris 


il prit 


nous primes 


vous pr'tes 
11* 


ils prirent 



250 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 





FUTURE. 




Jc prendrai 


tu prendraa 


il prend ra- 


nous prendrons 


vous prendrez 

CONDITIONAL,. 


ils prendront 


Je prcndrais 


tu prendrais 


il prenilrait 


nous prendrions 


vous preudriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


Us prendraient 




prends 


qu'il prenne 


prenons 


prencz 


qu'ils prennent 



Que je prenne 
que noofl prenionfl 



SUBJCNCTIVE TRESEXT. 

que tu prennea qu'il prcnno 

que vous preniez qu'ils preunont 



BUailM I1VE PAST. 

Qui- j'- prisse que tu prisses qu'il prit 

que nous prissions que vous prissiea qu'ils prissent 

'I'll.' oompoand tenses an conjugated with Avoir, to have, 

Conjugate alter the name manni r: 






ndre, to learn ngain. 



mdrs, to comprehend, to Reprmdre, to take again, to re- 
understand. 

to loosen, t" dieen- Surprendre, to surprise, to de- 



gage. 

to unlearn. 
to undertake 



cava. 

ndre, to mistake, 

\dre, to be smitten. 

Tin- o omp oand tenant of*,- mt'pratdn and rtjprsndrs, are conju- 
gal- d will, /.'.',-, , t i 1..- ; $'iprt I <//■- is used only in the participle past, 
ami in all the oompoand :• 



! 






Ink. K.'dui rt 



.1.- r.' lui a 
nous n'-dui $on8 



Je riduJ .< Hi 
noai rfeo 



I'aki 

tu rMui * 

imim ,;i ! r. 
tu rt 

v Of 



Taut. Past, RYdul i 



il rMui t 
\'-> red i 



i' r'd'i 



251 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



Je redid sis 


tu redui sis 


il redui sit 


nous redui simes 


vous redui siles 

FUTURE. 


ils redui sirent 


Je redui rai 


tu redui ras 


il redui ra 


nous redui rons 


vous redui rez 

CONDITIONAL. 


ils redui ront 


Je redui rais 


tu redui rais 


il redui rait 


nous redui rions 


vous redui riez 

IMPERATIVE. 


ils redui raient 




redui s 


qu'il redui se 


redui sons 


redui sez 


qu'ils redui serc£ 




SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


Que je redui se 


que tu redui ses 


qu'il redui se 


que nous redui sions 


que vous redui siez 


qu'ils redui sent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

Que je redui sisse que tu redui sisses qu'il redui sit 

que nous redui sissions que vous redui sissiez qu'ils redui sissent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 
Conjugate in the same manner: 



Conduire, to conduct, to lead. 

Gonstruire, to construct. 

Cuire, to bake. 

Deduire, to deduct, to take from. 

Diitruire, to destroy. 

Econduire, to discard in polite 

manner. 
Enduire, to plaster. 
Entreluire, to shine a little, to 

glow a little. 
Induire, to induce. 
Instruire, to instruct. 
Introduire, to introduce. 



Luire, to shine, to glow. 
Waive, to hurt. 
Produire, to produce. 
Beconduire, to reconduct, to lead 

back. 
Reconstruire, to construct again. 
Reeuire, to bake again. 
Relidre, to shine, to glow. 
Renduire, to plaster again. 
Reproduire, to reproduce. 
Seduire, to seduce. 
Traduire, to translate. 



252 



ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Resoudre To Dissolve, to Resolve. 

Inf. Resoudre Part. Pres. Rt'solvant Part. Past, Resolu or resotis 



Je re sous 
nous re solvons 



Je re solvais 
nous re 6olvions 



Je re solus 
nous re sol iimes 



"idrai 
nous re soudrons 



Je i'.' soodraia 

- ludrioni 



re* solvous 



Qoeje rf v Ivb 

II t<- xilvions 



tu re sous 
vous re solvez 

IMPERFECT, 
tu re" solvais 
vous re Bolvies 



il re sout 
ils re solvent 



il re solvait 
ils re solvaient 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

tu iv solus il re solut 

vous re solutes ils n' solurent 



FUTURE. 

in ti Boudraa 

vous re so ml rex 

I "MM noXAI.. 

in re" s"ii Irais 

Iriei 

iMi'i.i:\ 1 1\ B. 

■ 
I 



il re soudra 
ils re soudront 



il re" Boodrait 

ils re soudraient 



qu'il rt' solve 
qu'ila re* solvent 



sum H rr. H PBBffl 

(|u • i'i ti BOlvefl qu'U re" solve 

BOlvia qu'ila n'.sol vent 



; i\ 1: PAST. 

Qoeje r' >'>ius8o que I qu'il re" aolftt 

ia cim- v.Mis i qu'ila r' BOloOHDt 

The oompoond tens - ue e mju pate l with Avoir, to have. 
The above verb dab two pai Iciplee past /.'-'.W'/, is and when 

whin employed 

Ire, toal Diftmidre, to dissolve. 

These two last verba have no preterit definite, nor imperfect of the 

6U1'JU11 



VERBS. 



253 



Inf. Eire 



Je ris 
nous rions 



Je riais 
nous riions 



Kike To Laugh. 

Part. Pres. Eiaut Part. Past. Ri 

PRESENT. 



tu ris 


ilrit 


vous riez 


ils rient 


IMPERFECT. 




tu riais 


il riait 


vous riiez 


ils riaient 



Je ris 
nous rimes 



Je rirai 
nous rirons 



Je rirais 
nous ririons 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

tu ris il rit 



vous rites 


ils rirent 


FUTURE. 




tu riras 


il rira 


vous rirez 


ils riront 


CONDITIONAL. 




tu rirais 


il rirait 


vous ririez 


ils riraient 


IMPERATIVE. 




ris 


qu'il rie 


riez 


qu'ils rient 


SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


que tu ries 


qu'il rie 


que vous riiez 


qu'ils rient 


SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 




que tu risses 


qu'il rit 


que vous rissiez 


qu'ils rissent 



Queje rie 
que nous riions 



Queje risse 
que nous rissions 

Compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 
Conj ugate after the same manner : 

Sourire, to smile. Se rire de, to laugh at. 

The compound tenses of se rire de, are conjugated with Eire. 



254 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Ixf. Rompre 



Romprb To Break. 

Part. Pees. Rompant Part. Past, Rompu 



Te romps 
nous rompons 



Je rompais 
nous rompinns 



J.' rompis 

D 



Je rompraJ 

improns 



Je rompraie 

: :ipli«>us 



r<iiii|«ni3 



\\ "mns 






tu romps 
vous rompez 

EVIPERFECT. 

tu rompais 
vous rompiez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



il rompt 
Us rompeut 



il rompait 
ils ronipakmt 



tu ton 

vous rompites 

FUTURE. 

tu romprae 
roue roi 

; ITOHA1 

tu ran 

vmi.- romprlez 

IMI'I.KATIVE. 

I 



il rompit 
ils rompirent 



il n-mpra 
ils. rampraat 



il romprait 
praient 



qu il mmpo 

quiis rompeut 






que tu r» 
que root roi 

BUBJ1 M i n 



qa'il rompe 
qu ils n 



que hi ram] qn'il romptt 

qu'ila rompii 

i 

rropfc Ii.: to interrupt 



VEJIBS. 



255 



Inf. Suivre P. 


hit. Pres. Suivant 

PRESENT. 


Part. Past, i 


Je suia 


tu suis 


il suit 


nous suivons 


vous suivez 

IMPERFECT. 


ils suivent 


Je suivais 


tu suivais 


il suivait 


nous suivions 


vous suiviez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE 


ils suivaient 


Je suivis 


tu suivis 


il suivit 


nous suivimes 


vous suivites 

FUTURE. 


ils suivirent 


Je suivrai 


tu suivras 


il suivra 


nous suivrons 


vous suivrez 

CONDITIONAL 


ils suivront 


Je suivrais 


tu suivrais 


il sufvrait 


nous suivrions 


vous suivriez 

IMPERATIVE. 


il suivraient 




suis 


qu'il suive 


suivons 


suivez 


qu'ils suivent 




SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 


Que je suive 


que tu suives 


qu'il suive 


que nous suivions 


que vous suiviez 


qu'ils suivent 



SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 
Que je suivisse que tu suivisses qu'il suivit 

que nous suivissions que vous suivissiez qu'ils suivissent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 
Conj ugate after the same manner : 

Poursuivre, to pursue, to prosecute. S'en suivre, to follow, to result. 

The last verb is only used in the third person singular of every 
tense, 



256 



OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Inf. Traire 



Je trais 
nous trayons 



Je trayais 
nous trayions 



Je trairai 
nous trairons 



Je trairais 
nous trairions 



trayons 



Traire To Milk. 

Part. Pres. Trayant Part. Past, Trait 



PRESENT. 




tu trais 


il trait 


vous trayez 


ils traient 


IMPERFECT. 




tu trayais 


il trayait 


vous trayiez 


ils trayaient 


FUTURE. 




tu trairas 


il traira 


vous trairez 


ils trairont 


CONDITIONAL 




tu trairais 


il trairait 


vous trairez 


ils trairaient 


IMI'l RATI YE. 




trais 


qu'il traie 


trayea 


qu'ils traient 



traie 

i 



BERT. 
que tu I (|u'il traie 

qnevoua trayiei qu*i]s traient 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Awir, to have. 

Conjugate after the same manner: 

■ abstract. liintmirr, to fine draw. 

Atlrai ■ redeem an estate. 

l)Litr«\r.-, to distinct, to divert . to substraet, to hide, tc 

J-'rtriii;-' C on ceal, tO take a\vay. 

i] e, to withdraw one's self from. 
Be ." 'be. 



Yaincre T<> vanquithy in conquer. 

Past. Pbbb. 7ainquant Part. Past, Vaincn 

J \ : i tu raincs il vaine 

nou» vain. pons vous vainqiiez ■ jueut 



VERBS. 



257 



Je vainquais 
nous vainquions 

Je vainquis 
nous vainquimes 

Je vaincrai 
nous vaincrons 

Je vaincraia 
nous vaincrions 



vamquons 

Que je vainque 
que nous vainquions 



IMPERFECT. 

tu vainquaia 
vous vainquiez 

PRETERIT DEFINITE, 

tu vainquis 
vous vainquites 

FUTURE, 
tu vaincras 
vous vaincrez 

CONDITIONAL, 
tu vaincrais 
vous vaincriez 



il vainquait 
ils vainquaient 



il vainquit 
ils vainquirent 



il vaincra 
ils vaincront 



il vaincrait 
ils vaincraient 



IMPERATIVE, 

vaincs 
vainquez 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 

que tu vainques qu'il vainque 

que vous vainquiez qu'ils vainque 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 
que tu vainquisses qu'il vainquit 



qu'il vainque 
qu'ils vainquent 



Que je vainquisse 

que nous vainquissions que vous vainquissiez qu'ils vainquissent 

The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 
Conjugate after the same manner : 

Convaincre, to convince. 



Inf Vivre 


Part. Pres. Vivant 

PRESENT. 


Part. Past 


Je vis 


tu vis 


ilvit 


nous vivons 


vous vivez 

IMPERFECT. 


ils vivenfc 


Je vivais 


tu vivais 


il vivait 


nous vivions 


vous viviez 


ils vivaient 



25S 



OX THE PAET3 OF SPEECH. 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



Te vt'cus 


tu v'cus 


il vecut 


lous w'carues 


vous VLcites 

FUTURE. 


ils vt-cuient 


Jo vivrai 


tu vivras 


il vivra 


nous vivrons 


vous vivrcz 

conditional. 


ils vivront 


Je vivraia 


tu vivraia 


il vivrait 


nuus vivriona 


vous vivriez 

DCFEBATIVS. 


Us vivraiont 




vis 


qu'U vive 


vivons 


vivos 


qu'ils viv. nt 




subjuni tivi: pbi 


Qneje viva 


<jm- t . 


qu'il vive 


DOS viv'mna 


que VOUS vivicz 


qu'ils vivcnt 



que vousi 



PAST. 

DU • tu v ' (ju'il VCCUl 

que v qu'ila vecussent 

id With .1 •/ \ kO have. 

me manner: 

iv.\ S'irrirn\ to survive. 



EXERCISES ON THE VERBS. 
I.— n LTIOK. 

ire, If you would hide it. lie 
prefert i -lut \ . l>m I wished that he might rather prefer 

i( i r ri *:i t.- thi> man ; he is drunk, and _v>u 

• liiii propose a i'«-i t<-r plan, I have 

our friends ; let as think more 

of t!i J . -.\ Imlred h.-r. bat I loved her. 

We won] bat -h • refased "nr sympathy. 

or did you not rather w 
the most Importai I an I they wil] 

Bupport any r.-mdi- 
dase, ..r by whom Is b< wi Bsl ing in the strosni 



VERES. 259 

when he caught that big fish. He awoke late and found that all his 
friends had gone in the morning. Would you not have flown to her 
assistance, if she had cried ? He ate too much, and now he has dined 
a second time. I wish that you may remain here for a week ; I will 
stay with you. That he should oblige my brother and offend his own, 
was a great surprise to all. He warned me that I should not copy his 
example. We expected that they would have burnt the ship. 

II. — SECOND CONJUGATION. 

Choose your seat and do not leave for an hour. Warn your friends 
that they convert themselves or it will be too late. They served him 
well, but they slept too much. Did not the enemies invade an im- 
mense country, and did they not invest several fortresses ? He softened 
his father by his submission, and I foresaw that he might succeed if 
he came back in time. I wished that you would not sully your glory 
by these mean deeds. He obtains all Ms money from his wife ; she 
retains nothing, and thus she suffers frequently ; but he blemishes his 
reputation. Let us finish this work ; he will punish us if we are not 
ready. They predicted that we would disobey the laws and that we 
would weaken the strength of onr party. Hold this sword and do not 
let it fall. He left this morning, and we shall leave to-morrow ; when 
will you leave ? Let him maintain himself by his labor and all will 
honor hju. 

III. — THIRD CONJUGATION. 

He receives a large salary, bat he owes large sums of money. 
When he owed jie a hundred dollars, I feared that he would not pay 
me, bat he has ialfllled his [jomise. Let them conceive these ideas 
and they will perceive soon their errors. We perceived the house 
from the top of the mountain, kut they did not perceive us. We shall 
conceive hopes of her recovery if she suffers less to-night than yester- 
day ; the doctor said that he perceived good symptoms. He told us 
that we should not receive vhis officer with too much politeness, 
because he was not a friend of our nation, but that we should be 
polite to those who come to our house. 

IV. — FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

We knew him well when he sold goods in this city, but he did 
not know us, for we lived in another part of the city. Let them be 
silent or they will render themselves hateful to the enemy. We lost 
all our money, and you would lose yours if you sold your paintings 



260 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

now. Did this dog bite you or had you been bitten before? He 
did not please by his manners but by his conduct. Pity us, my 
friends, for we have pitied you when you were unfortunate. You 
fear an idle threat, why did you not fear the real danger ? He con- 
soled me, that I might not melt in tears. I would recognize him 
where, but he will not recognize his own brother. I said it that 
you might hear the opinion of an honest man, but you heard only 
the half of my speech. They appeared surprised, but it surprised 
them not. for they had heard it yesterday. Let us take patience and 
let us seem contented with our lot, if we cannot be so. He expected 
us at the gate and we heard his voice, but he seemed (to be) angry. 
That he may depend on me and on my friends, is my sincere wish. 

T. PIIONOMINAL TORB& 

They walked for several hours in the garden, and when they had 

walked enough, they proposed to each other to withdraw into the 

house. Why did Bhe not prepare herself for this event, she knew 

that it might come s..,,n We have mined ourselves In this enter- 

. and yon would ruin yourself if you engaged In the same. 

applauded themselves, bnl they were mistaken ; they had 

y.-t l>o not forget yourselves when you are in his 

- told she betray herself by her tears, or should she 

sol rather control herself and hide her sorrow? They Ibnga* each 

other all thai day, and when evening came they withdrew to their 

camp. Let as not reproach ourselves with (de) faults of others; wo 

have eoou rh to do with "nr own faults. You would degrade yourself 

If yon were not deceived; they have loved each other all their life. 

Will not that man Bubmit to BOJUBt a law. She will dishonor her- 
self, if >he ■ He grew rich by tin- misfortunes of 
. and now , hanee ha- reduced him to poverty. Do not expose 

• and we made our- 

YL PASBTVl 7SBB& 

He I by ill his friends, but now he is hated and de- 

lf they were stronger, I 
wish that tb Ince yester- 

day, will have been discovered, and the 

author, no doubt, has b My father was respected and 

my m Lred, although thoy 



VERBS. 261 

were recognized. He performed with so much ability that he was 
applauded universally. Would he have been praised, as he was, if 
he had been less modest ? He is known by nobody, but, still, he is 
very happy. How many countries, unknown to the ancients, have 
been discovered in our days ? 

VII. — IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
Does it rain this morning or does it freeze ? It did not snow during 
the winter, but it snows this morning. When did it hail in your 
city ? Do you think (that) it will freeze again to-morrow ? It hap- 
pened that I was present at that remarkable adventure, and it appears 
now that I was the only witness. Would it be proper that I should 
speak to her, or would it appear presumptuous ? It thundered twice 
when I was absent ; has it thundered again ? It will lighten after 
several seconds. 

vm. — ON THE verb "By a." 
There was a great difference of age between these two persons. 
Was there a great crowd at the theatre ? I wish there could be a law 
to prevent this ; there has been too much of it. What has there 
been better than this in the history of our country ? There being so 
many difficulties, the affair has been abandoned. There was one 
woman in the company, but there were a hundred men, and there 
would have been many children also, if it had been permitted. There 
has been a festival every day, and there will be a solemn feast to-mor- 
row. 1 v.Lli that there might be a larger crowd. 

IX. — ON THE VERB " B faut." 
[All expressions implying necessity, duty, obligation, or want, are in 
French expressed by falloir, followed by que with the verb in the Sub- 
junctive. I must remain; it is necessary that I remain: il faut que je 
teste. He had to work ; it was necessary that he worked : il fallait quHl 
travallldt.] 

You must speak to him about this affair, and he must answer you 
politely or there will be a difficulty. We were obliged to set out yes- 
terday, for we had to be in the city before Thursday. What must I 
do in order to please you ? You must do your duty faithfully and 
you will please everybody. What does he want ? He wants something 
to eat and something to drink. I had to abandon all hope of seeing 
him again. You must not forget that you promised me a letter ; you 
must, on the contrary, remember your promise and write very often 



262 ON THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 

I do lot think that it is necessary to be a magician, to yuess your 
seereU. You ought to ask pardon for your faults, and they will be 
readily forgiven. 

X. — OX TUE IRREGULAR YERRS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 
ne will go this evening into the country — will you go with him '? 
I will go when you go ; lor I would have gone yesterday, if I had not 
preferred to go with you. Well, let us go at once, for if we go later 
it will he too hot. Let him go with us, he is a pleasant companion, 
and if we go together we shall have a pleasant walk. When will 
yon send those flowers to your sister, or have you sent them already? 
No, 1 would have sent them this morning, hut the gardener had given 
them to a friend : 1 shall send my bouquet this evening. 1 would not 
Bend them BO late, she will not heat home then. Did you send tho 
See '. "^ . -. I sent all by the servant. 1 wish that 
you would Bend me a little money, 1 have none. 

XI.— iki:i:<;i-i.\k VERBS OT mi; SECOND CONJUGATION. 

be the man who has converted so many heathens! The 

lourished at Ath< na in 'he tun.- of Periclea They 

(1 d from the battle-field, and 1 fled with them ; you Baw us. perhaps, 

in our Bight ; we acted not with prudence and care, lor we were 

i ormoua force, and when 

■ •■ COUld. Would he not hate 
that man, if he knew all '.' He hat. d him h. fore, hut now he will de- 

i|> and i orade of worldly 

greatn obI They discoui aother life, and that 

we .should not run alter shadows. He is very sick, and his strength 

him i v. -r.v day more ; he came near dj How did 

I have Inquired after it and requested his 

it ii. Would you dress your 

children bett r if you could collect your moi nly? Let us 

• h i.i with be "ill receive as well when wet 

antry. 

xn.— ransom \k ■ > conj 

II »w did ho tall into poverty, and why ha- he fa) nly in 

public? He baa put in th< lottery, and he b< 

dm. 1 did i ' ii "a- net 

lor is. 

r you would havo 



VERBS. 263 

had to pay much more hereafter. Shall we see you to-night? I 
would see you again, if I could, and I hope that I shall he able to 
come. We moved him by our prayers to tears, and he promised that 
he would promote our interests. It will not rain to-day, for it rained 
yesterday, and it is rare that it rains two days one after the other.. 
Let us sit down here ; you, madam, seat yourself in a chair, and I 
will sit on the turf. We sat where we could, and when the usher 
said Sit down, gentlemen, we were much embarrassed. To conclude 
this business it would be necessary that they should see each other at 
once ; I foresaw this, and provided for the interview. One ounce of 
gold is equivalent to fifteen ounces of silver — what would ten ounces 
be equivalent to? Doubt not that truth and justice will prevail in 
the end. If she is willing, we are willing, too. He says that he can 
do what he will do, because men will do nothing more than what they 
can do, if they are wise. 

XIII. — IRREGULAR VERBS OP THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

These substances resolve themselves into ashes when they are 
burnt ; but this matter does not resolve itself at all. Who would 
absolve him if he should commit a great crime ? Have they resolved 
on war or peace ? My sister sewed all the day, and yet, when the 
evening came, the dress was not sewed, and some pieces which were 
finished have to be sewed over again. Let him take his share; I 
took mine yesterday, and you have taken yours before us. What 
news have you learnt ? I learnt that the city was taken, and that 
the enemy would live at the expense of the inhabitants for a month. 
Would you undertake this business if I placed it in your hands ? You 
reproved him too sharply ; bad company has corrupted him, perhaps, 
but he is not wicked by nature. They followed us for two days, but 
then they pursued us no longer, and we escaped. They fought with 
fury, and after they had beaten the enemy and vanquished their fa- 
mous generals, they made a triumphal procession. He did his best, 
you did not so well, and they would have done better if they had 
wished it. Could it be possible that we should make such a mistake? 
He must make a better use of his talents. They satisfied themselves 
that they would do mischief if they went. He was born in this city, 
where his parents were born also. They wrote their letters this 
morning ; I shall write mine now ; will you not write yours also ? Did 
you think me capable of a crime, when you made that remark ? I 
would not bvlieve it of you, even if somebody said so. 



2G4 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Participles derive tbeir name from the fact that they partake 
of the nature of the verbs from which they derive their origin 
and meaning, and of the adjective, which they resemble in form 
and use. 

The verb has two participles : 

A participle jiresent, which invariably ends in ant, has its 
feminine in a/ttr, and its two plural forms in ants and antes, 
Ex. charmant ; unefemme charmante, a charming woman ; 
ifants charmants, charming children: deux histoires char- 
. two charming Btories. 
A participle past, which ends in the first conjugation in k 
second in i (ie, is, ies), in the third and 
fourth in " (i 

. a concealed man ; < < ; lebrte, 

a oelebi desperate people. 

Both participles are declined like adjectives, and have to 
onn they qualify, whenever they arc not used 
a> mere par i of the \oil>, bat have the meaning of adjectives. 
The : e will easily determine in what capacity they 

d. 
1, They are j>arts of the verb when they express an action, 
and consequently have an object. In this ease they remain 
unchanged 

P\. Je harmani tout le monde, I have seen her 

charming (who charm lonnant let 

. ' mba sur > ux, my friend, astonishing the bystanders, 
feh upon them. 

_. I when they t an aetion, 

bat a quality. Then they agree with the noun which they 
qualify. 

Y.\. I "•.-■! <n, < /■ iii in? charmante, she is a charming woman; 
quelle ;<■ what surprising Qewal 



ADVERBS. 205 

It must be remembered, that as adjectives, they are invariably 
placed after the noun, contrary to the usage in English. 

3. The Participle Past agrees, besides, with the subject of 
the verb, whenever it is used with the auxiliary etre. 

Ex. JSlle est etonnee, she is astonished; ils se sont battus, they 
have fought ; elles s 'elaient promenees, they had walked. 

4. The Participle Past, when used with the auxiliary avoir, 
agrees with the direct object, when this object precedes it. 

Ex. Quelle femme avez-vous vue? which woman have 
you seen? combien des hommes a-t-il tues? how many of the 
men lias he killed ? je Vai rencontree, I have met her ; les 
ckoses que fai oubliees, the things I have forgotten. 

Exercise. 
These ladies are charming ; they have entertained us for an hour ; 
but now they will not stay, for you have frightened them. I left them 
in an embarrassing situation, and even his consoling words had no 
effect. This was one of the ladies whom we had obliged, and yet she 
has ill-treated and deceived us. Your sen-ant has washed your plates, 
but he has not wiped them ; they are spoilt. She had spoken to us, 
but she has not saluted us with her usual kindness. This amusing 
story is not true ; it has been invented by a celebrated novelist. He 
told us several instances of amazing bravery ; they have astonished 
us beyond measure. How many of them has he seen himself? He 
has seen all those which he related to us. 



CHAPTER VI. 



Adverbs are words so called because they principally serve 
to qualify verbs ; they may, however, qualify adjectives and 
other adverbs also. But, whatever may be their uses, they 
always remain unchanged. ^ 

Ex. Vous avez fait bien, you have done well ; elle est Men 
belle, she is very handsome ; vous ecrivez bien negligemmenty 
you write very negligently. 



26G OK THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

There are four different kinds of adverbs, according to theii 
manner of formation : 

1. Simjile Adverbs, or such as are nothing but adverbs, and are 
not derived from other parts of speech. Such are ties, fort, 
and lien, very ; peu, little ; mal, ill ; ici, here ; la, there ; tot, 
soon ; tard, late. 

2. Derivative Adverbs, or such as are derived from adjectives. 
This is done by the addition of ment (the Latin ablative of 
mens, mente.) 

a. To the adjective simply, when it ends in a vowel. 

Ex. riche : ric/iement, richly; poli : poliment, politely ; in- 
genu : ing&wbment, ingenuously. 

'■. To the feminine of the Adjective, if the masculine ends 
in a consonant 

'. grandly ; franc : franekement, frank- 
ly ; i .:. oil, artlessly; Ira is : fratchement^ freshly; 
i : no'iri il< no nt, newly. 

i-. By i chai ge of the final syllables ant and ent into ammant 
and eminent, which are both pronounced like the first 

Ex. constant: oonstammenL, constantly; eloquent: iioqutm- 
ment, eloquently. 

I ; x ■ ■ ■ ■ i ■ t '■ i, wl ntement, slowly; and gritent, which 

prSeentement, presently. 

</. Tin- following Adverbs accent tin- final <• of the Adject've, 
when adding meni : 

'/•'nt'Ht, blindly. rmiment, enormously. 

cumi, mmodiously. opini&triment, obstinately. 

mt m nt, conformably. 

Bxsbi 

This orator apoke Tory eloquently*bul he « 1 1 « 1 nol touch tlm lioart • 
his sentiments were not delivered ingenuously. He entered blindly 
Intothi oons Iracy and suffered severely. 1 will tell you frankly thai 

! ahumiuutiy all ; our punishments, tor you h..\.- 



ADVERBS. 20 7 

acted wickedly, and the judge has treated you after all very leniently. 
She endured her sufferings patiently, and gave us a good example. 
He was one of the best writers of the last century ; he thought deeply 
and wrote nobly. The battle was fought conformably to his orders, 
and all went well, but instantly after his death every thing was in 
confusion. 

3. Compound Adverbs, or such as consist of a noun or a 
preposition, as d'abord, at first or at once ; en effet, indeed ; 
par force, forcibly; a present, now; apres demain, after to-mor- 
row. 

Adverbs of Quantity, when followed by nouns, must be con- 
nected with them by the preposition de, of; which is not used 
in English. 

Ex. beaucoup de peine, much trouble; peu d* argent, little 
money ; trop de zele, too much zeal ; inoins de bruit, less noise. 

Except only lien, very much, a great deal, which is not followed by 
de, but by the partitive article. 

Ex. bien de la peine, very much trouble ; Men des amis, very many 
friends. 

Exercise. 

Much money and little wisdom are less desirable than much wis- 
dom and little money. He has as many friends as I, but he has more 
enemies. I had not enough patience with this child ; perhaps she 
had too many faults. How many dollars have you in your purse 1 I 
have not enough to pay him. Few men learn by experience. Give 
me a little attention and I will tell you more secrets than your wife. 
Hd did it with less hesitation than his brother, who has more pru- 
dence. Too much zeal is almost as bad as too little, but no zeal at all 
is fatal to any enterprise. 

Negative Adverbs, used with the verb, require, as has already 
been stated, the addition of ne before the verb, whether they 
precede or follow the verb. 

Ex. Je rCai vu rien, I have seen nothing ; rien ne pent etre 
mieux, nothing can be better ; il rCy est jamais, he is never 
there ; jamais de ma vie n'ai-je vu le pareil, never in my life 
have I seen the like. 



268 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



I have not seen him this week ; he has never been absent so long, 
and nothing is more probable than his death. She said nothing to 
me, and I said nothing to her ; have you ever heard of two more 
silent persons ? Nobody came to her party, and she had invited all. 
I know nobody in this city, for I have never been here before. "We 
have no more time to give you, and we have only ODe room in which 
we live. Nothing will persuade me that he is not dishonest ; I have 
never seen a more wicked face. 



COMPARATIVE DEGREES. 

Adverbs form their Comparatives and Superlatives in prc- 

the Bame manner as Adjecth 
Ex. plus riehement, more richly; moins abondanvment, less 
abundantly ; le plus gaimeru\ most gaily ; le mains prompte- 
least promptly. 
Tiic irregnlar comparatives of Adjectives have their corres- 
ponding irregular comparatives of Adverbs, and both are ben 
for the better comparison. 

( OKPAB vi I BXJP1 RXATTVB. 

-, i tter ; l< tin • '< ur, best 
better ; le mi, ur, best, 

le fire, worst, 
worse ; l< pie, wont 
. smaller; /< moindre, smallest 
ine, less; lemoine, least 

It will be seen that in English adjectives and adverbs fre- 
quently look a th better and woi 
beat and worst; whilst in French the two parts of speech differ 
essentially. This requires, therefore, careful attention. 

He di.l it mom promptly than i I. He behaved mosl 

handsomely, although he was the least Informed of all. I like him 
better every dav ; but his brother Is the better man of the two. Hnvo 



Adj. 






adv. 




well; 


Adj. 




bad; 


Adv. 




ill; 


Adj. 




small ; 


Adv. 




little ; 



PREPOSITIONS. 2G9 

you seen a worse child than Mary? No ; but Anna is the worst of all 
the children. Is she worse to-day or better ? She was worse yester- 
day, and the doctor said that to-morrow will be the worst day of her 
illness. I have drunk a better wine, but I have never seen a worse 
cook. He does it well, but she does it badly. 



CHAPTER VII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions placed before nouns, pronouns, and verbs, show 
their relation to each other in the same sentence. 

According to their uses they are either 

Simple prepositions, which are placed immediately before 
the nouns — 

Ex. le fruit de Varbre, the fruit of the tree ; la mort de Cesar, 
the death of Caesar ; tue par lid, killed by him ; — or, 

Compound prepositions, which require an additional prepo- 
sition, de or a, to connect them with the noun. 

Ex. quant a vous, concerning you ; vis-a-vis de la maison, 
opposite the house ; jusqiCa midi, until noon ; pres de Geneve, 
near Geneva. 

The three Prepositions which occur most frequently are : de, 
a and par. 

De coi responds to all the meanings of the English of or 
from, and in passive constructions to by. 

Ex. un homme de genie, a man of genius ; je viens de Rome, 
I come from Rome ; elle est aimee de ses parents, she is beloved 
by her parents. 

A corresponds to the English to; with names of cities, to at 
or in, and generally expresses purpose or intention. 

Ex. tTai beauconp a faire, I have much to do ; donnez-la a 
Jean, give it to John ; il est a Londres, he is in London ; cela 



270 OS THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 

arrlva a Paris, that happened at Paris ; est-il bon a manger, is 
it good to eat (for the purpose of eating) ? 

Par corresponds to the English through, and in passive con- 
structions to by, when a physical agency is referred to, while de 
is used when the agency is moral or mental. 

Ex. Passezpar ma chambre, go through my chamber; il fat 
tui par mi .<" ! <Iat, he was killed by a soldier; elle Va fail par 
pilie, she did it from (through) pity. 

Vans and rn both mean in, but with this distinction, that 
dans always means within and into, and is accompanied by the 
article, whilst en lias no such meaning and is used only when 
the Noun has no Article. 

Ex. /. i .'/</ dans la w'Ce, he entered into the city; eUe n\\<t 
pas dans la matron, she is not inside the house. 

nee, he is in France : il faut lefaire en hdw, it 
must be done in h 

When Pre] I b fore Verbs they require to be 

. d by the Infinitive (instead of the Participle Present 

j ish). 

W ;t ii«>ut saying a word, sans dire mot ; he whs scolded 

for having od for 

eating, il est l»>>t < 

. which is followed by tho 
Part, l'r 

\.\. I . he fell while coming down; oil 

Vapprenden Vetm I by studying it. 

I snail nr>! leave yon wtthonl explaining to yon my motirea 
not found nil book while looking for the other things 1 sin- will have 
...a well by giving j ■• yon noi oontenl 

with ■ hundred dollars 1 I for the winter, but it in 

not nool enough for the Bummer. He was not found In the suburbs, 
lmt they discovered him within Parla I went there before them, and 
tliu- ! ■ the concert we «lis- 

..ut wr did d . any thing. Did j ■ 



CONJUNCTIONS. 271 

vb Mil wlicn you passed through that country, or did you return with- 
out having met them'? He was punished because he said the laws 
were good to punish but not to prevent crime. As for me, I know 
nothing of it ; but as for you, you know every thing. He lives oppo- 
site us, and we see him often fall asleep while reading. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions serve to connect words in the same sentence, 
or sentences and parts of sentences with each other. 

Ex. Pierre et Paul, Peter and Paul ; je le vis et je le saluai, 
I saw him and spoke to him ; il fa fait et elle ne Va pas fait, 
he has done it and she has not done it. 

Et besides meaning and, is also repeated, and then corres- 
ponds to the English as well — as, or both. 

Ex. Je Vai et vu et admire, I have both seen and admired him ; 
on a pris et le pere et lefts, they have caught the father as 
well as the son. 

Ou, meaning or, may also be repeated, and then corresponds 
to the English either — or. 

Ex. On le roi ou le ministre va parler, either the king or 
the minister will speak ; ou il s'est trompe ou il nous a depus, 
he has either been mistaken or he has deceived us. 

The negative alternative is expressed by ni — ni, which 
requires, like all negative expressions, the additional use ot ne 
before the verb. 

Ex. Ni le roi ni le ministre ne parlera, neither the king nor 
the minister will speak ; je ne Vai ni vu ni salue, I have neither 
seen him nor greeted him ; ni Vun ni V autre, neither the one 
nor the other. 

Que corresponds to the English that and loses its e before 
words beginning with a vowel or mute h ; it cannot be omitted in 



272 OX THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 

French as in English, but must be used (and supplied) when- 
ever two verbs are connected with each other. 

Ex. I know he is here, je sals quil est ici ; I hope von will 
come, fespere que vous viendiez ; he said he would go, V dit 
quil irait. 

Si, when it corresponds to the English conditional if, can 
in French be followed only by two tenses of the Verb; by the 
Present Indicative, for the English Present and Future; and 
by the [mperfect Indicative, for any other Tenses or Moods 
that may be used in English : 

Ex. If he comes, tfil vient : if he will say yes, s'il dit qu'oui ; 
if he should come to-morrow, s'il venait demain ; if she were 

-; lit <h' YlOUVeaU. 

• •hi:. 

I have pvrn him both my love and my esteem, and I shall with- 
draw I ne DOT tin- other lor all your arguments. I saw ho 
. • 1 did not wish tit make matters worse or to 

If in the quarrel, I weal away. Either you or lie must 

has to he d I as he will Miller 

Ither your friend nor his wife when 1 met 

TOO . an ! II TOT to pardon me for it. I cannot say other- 

- this morning, tell him I will be there certainly, 

• he «iil wait, my library is open ; if he should refuse to wait, 

VOU must lo<k tie- would not sing last night because sho 

:;]>s she will BUlg today. since bl.e says she is quito 
_• ain. 



CHAPTER IX 

I IONS. 



Interjections are short, indeclinable words which serve to 
the sodden emotions of man. They are, of course, ai 

.1 as the latter. The following are the 



INTERJECTIONS. 273 

most familiar, whilst others are either of rare occurrence, as 
e. <]., only in poets, or of objectionable nature : 

Ah, ai, ouf — of pain ; helas, alas ; Ji, fi done, fie ; gare, hem, 

hold, ho — of warning ; bravo, viual — of applause ; ouais ? 

of surprise ; hola, hem, ho, eh — of calling ; chut, hush ! — 

&Uons, alerte, vile — of encouragement ; liens — look, look here ! 

12* 



GBAMMAK OF THE FBMCH LANGUAGE. 



PART II. 

FOE ADVANCED SCHOLAES. 



In the First Part of this Grammar the different parts of speech 
have been considered simply with B view to their form and ordi- 
nary meaning. 

In the Second Part they will be treated as forming part of a 

\ ! with a view t<> their relatione to each other. The 

eame order will !*• observed as in the First Part, ami the Btndent 

Mnally t.. refer to the elementary explanations 

. which will not be repealed. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Pkeface °< 

CHAPTER I. 

NOUNS. 

Gender of Nouns 9 

By Signification 10 

By Termination 12 

Exercise 17 

Number of Nouns 18 

Exercise 20 

Plural of Proper Names. 21 

Exercise 22 

Plural of Compound Nouns 22 

Exercise «, 25 

Plural of Abstract Nouns 26 

CHAPTER II. 

ARTICLES. 

Formation 26 

Place of the Article 28 

Repetition of the Article 28 

Use of the Article 29 

Use of the Definite Article '. 30 

Use of the Indefinite Article 30 

Exercise 31 

Use of the Partitive Article 32 

Exercise 32 

Exercise 33 



4 CONTENTS. 

The Article with Proper Names 34 

Exercise 35 

The Article with Names of Countries, etc 36 

Exercise 37 

The Article with Names of Mouths, etc 3t> 

Exercise 

The Article with Nouns in Apposition 39 

Exercise 39 

Exercise 40 

The Article with Names of Measure 41 

Exercise 41 

Exercise 42 

don of the Article 42 

Exercise 43 

Exercise 48 

tpoand Nonas in French 45 

Exercise 47 

48 

52 

CHAPTER III. 
a i ■.: i arm i 

:• l.t Of \'lj'--'!ivrs 53 

53 

iba 56 

56 

66 

Noons 67 



58 

The Place of Adjectives 58 

•• it li doable meaning 58 

68 

68 

l!5 



07 



09 





CONTENTS. 5 

PAOR 

List of Adjectives and their Prepositions 70 

Exercise 72 

Adjectives of Measure 72 

Exercise "4 

Adjectives of Number 74 

Cardinal Numbers 74 

Definitions of Time 75 

Exercise 78 

Ordinal Numbers and other Numerals 79 

Exercise 81 

CHAPTER IV. 

PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns 82 

Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 84 

Subjects (as nominatives) 84 

Direct Object (accusative) 87 

Exercise 90 

Indirect Object (Dative) 90 

Exercise 93 

Indirect Object (Genitive) 93 

Meaning and use of en 93 

Exercise 96 

Place of Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 97 

As Subject 97 

Exercise r. 99 

As Object 99 

Exercise 100 

Repetition of Personal Pronouns 101 

Exercise 102 

Personal Pronouns for Possessive Pronouns 102 

Exercise 104 

How to tra nslate it 1 04 

Exercise 106 

Personal Pronouns with Neuter Verbs 106 

Reflexive Personal Pronouns 107 

Absolute Personal Pronouns 108 

Exercise 109 

Exercise HI 



b CORTES j S. 

PAGB 

The Pronoun soi Ill 

Exercise 112 

Po*$cmce Pronouns 113 

Exercise 114 

With Articles, etc 114 

Exercise 116 

Demonstrative Pronouns 110 

Exercise 118 

Absolute forms 119 

Exercise 120 

With et and hi 120 

Exercise 122 

9 188 

Exercise 196 

Quoi and oh 120 

127 

Absol rogatite Pronouns 127 

12!) 

188 

181 

L81 

: lone i::i 

184 

with Noma 1 10 

1 1 1 

Used with <ir without Nouns 1 12 

145 

! 148 

L50 

Follow. .1 l.v ftn L51 

i 52 



CII A PTBR V. 

v I ED 

154 

and Mb Bobject 167 

l r>;> 



CONTENTS. 7 

PAQR 

The Verb and Collective Nouns 1G0 

Exercise , 101 

The Place of the Subject 102 

Exercise '. 104 

The Place of the Object 1G4 

Exercise , 167 

The Tenses and Moods of the Verb 107 

The Infinitive 107 

Exercise 171 

The Present 172 

Exercise 173 

The Past Tenses 173 

Exercise 176 

The Compound Past Tenses 177 

Exercise 179 

The Future. 179 

Exercise 181 

The Conditional 181 

Exercise 182 

The Imperative 182 

The Subjunctive Mood 183 

The Sequence of Tenses 184 

The Use of the Subjunctive 185 

Four Exercises 192 

The Participle Present 194 

Exercise 195 

The Participle Past 196 

Exercise 199 

Special Eules on the same subject 200 

Exercise 202 

The English Auxiliary Verbs in French 202 

Pouvoir 202 

Exercise 204 

Vouloir 205 

Exercise 206 

Devoir 207 

Exercise 208 

Lamer 209 

Exercise 210 



8 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Falloir 210 

Exercise 212 

Idiomatic Use of Verbs 212 

Avoir and y avoir 212 

Exercise 212 

Kir. 217 

220 

Exercise 222 

Ail i. r and Venir 22:! 

Exercise 224 

CB A PTER VI. 

Al>\ i.r.r.s. 

1' of Advert* 227 

tiftant, and atttant 238 

.rose 229 

ad lit it 229 

Interrogative Adverbs 281 

se 888 

rerbs *- >;i: > 



CHAPTER VII. 

889 

Bame cnbjecl continued 2 12 

i v. rbs with tli- IrP 

lee 848 

CH \ PT ER VIII. 



c ii \ i-ii: i; i x. 

881 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



PART II. 



CHAPTER I. 



The two most important relations, which influence the form 
of French Nouns in a sentence, and through them affect all words 
connected with them, are their Gender and their Number, the 
manner in which they convey the idea of sex, and that of a 
singular or plural number. 

I.— GENDER OF NOUNS. 

The idea of sex is expressed by the Gender of Nouns, which 
in French is double : Masculine and Feminine. The Neuter 
Gender of the Latin language, from which most French Nouns 
are derived, has been lost at a time when all Latin termina- 
tions were lost ; and hence, to the eye and to the ear, the dis- 
tinction between Masculine and Neuter ceased to be clear. 
Hence, Nouns which were Neuter in Latin, are either Masculine 
or Feminine in French, though the majority belong to the 
former class. Hence, also, Nouns which are Neuter in English, 
are either Masculine or Feminine in French. 



10 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

The Gender, in French, is determined — 
a. By the Meaning of the nouns. This gives the following 
rules : 

Masculine are: 

1. The names of male beings. 

Ex. Alexandre; Cesar ; cheval, horse; elephant, elephant. 
Except the following words, which, for etymological reasons, 
are feminine, although they designate men : scntindie, sentinel ; 
. mounted sentinel, and vigie, lookout 
a <*:casionlly used as a masculine. 

2. The names of beings generally considered as male. 

Ex ""//', angel; genie, genius ; centaure, centaur. 

This includes all diminutive names of animals, even when 
tlii- original i .'mine. 

Ex. ■• a young lion ; u, a young mouse; 

. 'I . ■ nan - of days, m.>: 

Eg. dime 9 ■ ■ . summer. 

. bare la fit* \- 

J ohn'fl day ; / . All Saints' l>:iy. 

4. The \\<>nl> of decimal nomenclature, 

.-,. The" oam - of metal* and BO-called elementary h 

; /• ,\ iron : Iphate, 

0. T: and shrubs. 

. hawthorn; bourdaine, alder, 

7. '. 

Ex. fi , West"; M \ North. 

. monsoon. 



GENDER OF NOUNS. 1 L 

8. The names of mountains. 

Ex. Chimboraso ; Cents ; Liban, Lebanon ; Etna. 

Except those used only in the plural : Alpes, Pyrenees, Cordil 
Ures and Vosges. 

9. The names of cities, towns and villages. 
Ex. Londres, Paris, Berlin, Vienne. 

Except those derived from a Latin feminine, as Eoma: 
Rome ; Mantua : Mantoue ; and those which are used with a fem- 
inine article, as La BocJielle, La Nouvelle Orleans. 

When towns are personified, they are always addressed as 
feminines. 

Ex. Oh malheureuse Tyr! dans-quelles mains es-tu tombeef 
Oh, unhappy Tyre, in whose hands art thou fallen ! 

10. The names of countries which do not end in mute e. 
Ex. Danemarck, Denmark; Piemont, Piedmont. 

11. All other parts of speech, like numerals, verbs, adjectives, 
prepositions, etc., when used as nouns. 

Ex. le manger, eating ; le pourquoi, the wherefore ; un si, 
an if; le tiers, the third ; le noir, the black. 

Except la moitie, half ; and technical terms like une parallele, a 
parallel (ligne being understood). 

.Feminine are : 

1. The names of female beings. 

Ex. Venus ; decsse, goddess ; nymphe ; femme, woman. 

2. The names of virtues and qualities. 

Ex. la bonte, kindness ; Vopiniatrete, obstinacy. 
Except courage and merite. 

b. By the Termination of the noun. This gives the follow- 
ing rule : 

Nouns ending in mute e are generally feminine, and all others 
generally masculine. 

This rule is, however, subject to numerous exception*. 



12 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

most of which have been given in the First Part of this Gram 
mar. They arise mainly from these two considerations, which 
will guide the educated foreigner better in ascertaining the 
gender of French nouns than a multitude of rules : 

1st. The meaning of a noun prevails over the mere form. 

2d. The derivation of a noun from a Latin word aids in so 
much, as the original gender is generally preserved, the neuter, 
of course, being excepted. 

It must be borne in mind, also, that these and other rules in 
French are Bubject to the influence of fashion and caprice. Thus 
affaire and rencontre were formerly both masculine, the latter as 
late as the date of J. B. Rousseau ; they are now feminine. 
IimUte, Age and art have changed their gender in more recent 
times. Garrosse t formerly a feminine noun, became masculine, 
ise Louis XIV., aa a boy, forgot its gender, and called tor 
.' This uncertainty oi genders has led to the fact, 
that many no d now of both genders. 

An important class ^i nouns are those which have to bo 
applied to both sexes. We observe here the following rules: 

1. When they end in mute ', they remain unchanged: 

: cygnt\ Bwan; csclave, slave; taut 

Except d . <• i aruide, Fern, thrviiemt. 

<ir,'dt»*6. i tn,\ kro§ 

nana pa /-iin-retse. 
ti'jnssc. 

2. Some have a different termination tor the feminine: 

E*. l<"<j>, Fern. daim, Fen data* 

,,.</, ch,rr<uil, ■!(<: 

oomp bicfalittc. 

Jam ■'<■ '"'. 

I 



GENDER OF NOUNS. 



13 



3. The following nouns retain their gender as well as their 
form, whether applied to man or woman : 



Agresseur, 


masc. 


aggressor. 


guide, 


masc. 


guide. 


amateur, 


masc. 


amateur. 


monstre, 


masc. 


monster. 


ange, 


masc. 


angel. 


orateur, 


masc. 


orator. 


appui, 


masc. 


support. 


partisan, 


masc. 


partisan. 


artisan, 


masc. 


tradesman. 


philosophe, 


masc. 


philosopher. 


artiste, 


masc. 


artist. 


personne, 


fern. 


person. 


assassin, 
auteur, 


masc. 
masc. 


murderer. 
l author. 
1 authoress. 


poete, 
pratique, 


masc. 
fern. 


jpoet. 
1 poetess, 
customer. 


bete, 


fern. 


fool. 


precepteur, 


masc. 


preceptor. 


botaniste, 


masc. 


botanist. 


predecesseur, masc. 


predecessor. 


bourreau, 


masc. 


tormentor. 


professeur, 


masc. 


professor. 


caution, 


fern. 


security. 


prosateur, 


masc. 


proser. 


censeur, 
charlatan, 


masc. 
masc. 


censor, 
quack. 


redacteur, 


masc. 


( writer in 
1 newspapers. 


chef, 


masc. 


chief. 


secretaire, 


masc. 


secretary. 


coramis, 


masc. 


clerk. 


souscHptew. 


r, masc. 


subscriber. 



connaissancefem. 
diable, mas< 



acquaintance, successeur, masc. successor. 
j a passionate person, or one who succeeds in diffi 
! cult undertakings. 



defenseur, 


masc. 


defender. 


temoin, 


masc. 


witness. 


detracteur, 


masc. 


slanderer. 


traducteur, 


masc. 


translator. 


disciple, 


masc. 


disciple. 


tyran, 


masc. 


tyrant. 


dupe, 


fem. 


dupe. 


vainqueur, 


masc. 


vanquisher. 


ecrivain, 


masc. 


writer. 


versificateur. 


masc. 


versifier. 


gage, 


masc. 


pledge. 


victime, 


fem. 


victim. 



Enfant, child, also is invariable, but takes the feminine article 
when applied to a girl, as la pauvre enfant, the poor little girl. 



4. The following nouns occur both as masculine and as femi- 
nine, without any change of meaning : 

Amour, which is masculine in the singular and feminine in 
the plural, unless it designates little amours. 

Ex. Un vif amour, warm love ; il rcest point d'elernelles 
amours, there is no everlasting love. 



14 OX THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

Automne is masculine wheu the adjective stands before it, 
and feminine when it follows it. 

Ex. El toi, riant automne ! and thou, smiling autumn! une 
automne nouvelle, a new autumn. 

Couhur, color, is feminine, except when it designates any 
particular color. It then becomes masculine. 

Ex. Une belle coulenr, a fine color ; un bean couleur rose, a 
pretty pink-color. 

Couple, couple, is masculine when it designates the union of 
a man and a woman in marriage and friendship, and feminine 
when it merely Berves to express the number two. 

Ex \ couple I what a handsome couple ! Bonncz- 

• me a couple (two) of 

When two of the Bame kind go together by > n/r is 

Bubetitut.-.i • 
Ex. I a pair of gloi both*,* 

/' tin original, the peculiarity of being 

gular and feminine in the plural. 
Ex perfect delight ; craianea s>s 

ichorous charms, 

'; it gives the femi- 
hich innii. diat< l\ precede it. 

iple; inttruiU 

tai _iit by ex* 

. 

mn, is feminii e when used to I bristian 

1 1 \ inii". and masculine in all othei cases. 

belles hymnu eh Luther, [el us dog those 
beautiful hymns by Luther'; ta< hymn a Vinut, a 

h) urn to Venus. 



GENDER OF NOUNS. 



15 



Orge, barley, is feminine as long as it means barley stand- 
ing, and becomes masculine when barley is prepared for use. 

Ex. Voila de belles orges, that is fine barley ; Forge monde, 
pealed barley. 

Orgue, organ, is, like delice, masculine in the singular and 
feminine in the plural. 

Ex. Get orgue est excellent, this organ is excellent ; y a-t-il de 
bonnes orgues ? are there fine organs there ? 

(Euvre, work, is feminine when it means any one great work 
of art, etc., and masculine when it has the sense of deed or 
creation. In the plural, where it means the works of an 
author, it is always feminine. 

Ex. Cest une ceuvre brillante, cet opera, this opera is a bril- 
liant work. Les ceuvres completes de Voltaire, Voltaire's com- 
plete works. 

5. The following nouns occur, also, as masculines and as femi- 
nines, but they change their meaning with their gender : 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Aide 


aid, adjutant 


aide 


assistance 


Aigle 


j eagle, a reading 
\ desk (at church) 


aigle 


j the Eoman stand- 
( ard 


barbs 


a Barbary horse 


barbe 


beard 


berce 


redbreast 


berce 


cow-parsnip 


capre 


privateer 


capre 


caper 


carpe 


wrist (in anatomy) 


carpe 


carp 


cartouche 


scroll 


cartouche 


cartridge 


cloaque 


sink 


cloaque 


ancient aqueduct 




r stage-coach, or 




\ notch 


eoche 


< packet-boat on 
( a river. 


coclte 


] fat sow 


cravate 


Croat 


cravate 


cravat 


crepe 


crape 


crepe 


pancake 


espace 


space 


espace 


space (in printing) 


follicule 


follicle 


follicule 


pod 


foret 


drill 


foret 


forest 



16 



OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 



foudre 



gure 
greffe 

heliotrope 

ft 

lout re 

mhnoire 



tnvufie 
moule 
office 
ombre 

| 

| 



( large tun, thun- 
3 derbolt (in ele- 
( vated style) 

hoar-frost 

register's office 

guide 

gales, in heraldry 

turnsoll (.flower) 

interline 
rainbow 
China varnish 
lily 
book 

(bat or muff of 
: hair 

handle 

1 i II 

thanks 

mole, pier 

of pulleys 

mould 

office, 1 ■■•• 

(a game at ranis, 
/ a Bab 

Jam 
IP 
i| bice) 

pper 

I 



foudre 



gure 

greffe 

guide 
gueule 

interligne 

Im or Ljft 

lie re 

in,' hi < dri- 
ll, < rci 

motile 

■ 

jiique 



FEMININE. 

\ thunderbolt (lite- 
( rally) 

( snake (in her- 
| aldry) 

graft 

rein 

mouth of animals 
(heliotrope, (pre- 
\ cious stone) 

lead (in printing) 

Bprig-crystal 

gum-lac 

1 .ys | a river) 

pound 

otter 

-.the British 
) Gbannel 
memory 
mere; 
fashion 

word) 

(muscle (a shell- 
'( Gab) 
pantry, larder 

shade 



parallel 
clock 

poh'.p, P 

period 

piqne, grudge 
peony (a Bower) 

i tool) 
Frying-pan 
laying cd 



GENDER OF NOUNS. 



17 



MASCDMNB. 


FEMtNINE. 


poste 


post 


poste 


\ letter or horse 
( post 


pourpre 


purple, a color, 


pourpre 


purple, a fabric 


pretexts 


pretext 


prctexte 


Eonian virile robe 


reclame 


( calling back a 
( hawk 


reclame 


j catch word (in 
( printing) 


reldche 


relaxation 


reldche 


shelter (for a ship) 


remise 


livery coacli 


remise 


coach-house 


serpentaire 


Serpentarius 


serpentaire 


snake -root 


sexte . 


sextus 


sexte 


sexte (in theology) 


solde 


j balance of an ac- 
\ count 


solde 


p»y 


somme 


nap, slumber 


somme 


sum, load 


souris 


smile 


souris 


mouse 


tour 


turn, trick 


tour 


tower 


triomplie 


triumph 


triomphe 


trumps (in cards) 


irompette 


trumpeter 


trompelte 


trumpet 


vague 


vague, airy plains 


vague 


wave, surge 


VKS 1 


vase 


vase 


mud, slime 


vigogne 


j cloth of Vigone 
| hair 


vigogne 


Llama 


voile 


veil 


voile 


sail 



Exercise. 

This great singer was a beautiful lady ; she was a stranger here, but 
your cousin and her husband had seen her before. There was hoar- 
frost this morning, and later it rained; this will spoil the wheat and 
the barley. Mme. de Genlis was the governess of one of the kings of 
France and the author of several books. Her collected works have 
been published. Has your neighbor, the grocer, many customers now ? 
He has lost many who have gone to my other neighbor, the corporal's 
widow. When I was in that country I admired the excellent organs 
for which Holland is famous. He has paid for that book one pound 
sterling, and he thinks it cheap. She has played us a bad trick and 
deserves to be punished. That tower is very old ; it was probably 
built by the Romans. Our guide was a peasant woman, and when I 
lost the reins of my horse she helped me better than a man would 
have done. The trumpeter sounded his trumpet and summoned them 



18 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

to surrender. We were all in the boat, when the wind tore the sail 
and my sister's veil was carried off. 



II.— NUMBER OF NOUNS. 

Common Nouns can represent one person or object, or several 
persons or objects, and, having a form for each, arc said to be 
in the singular or plural. 

Proper Names, designating but one person or object, can 
therefore have no plural as long as they are used as genuine 
pp. per names. It will be Been, hereafter, that they are fre- 
quently used as Common Nouns, and that they then occur in 
the plural also. 

The rules on the formation o( the plural have been fully given 
in tin' First Tart ■•( this < dammar. 

.'. e no plural iii French : 
1. The names of metals and Bo-called elements, when used in 
their general meaning. 

Ex. ('■■>-. gold ; la '. mercury. 

•j. The names of virtues and vices, and certain conditions of 
man, being used a* abstract nouns. 

Ex. Vara\ »r, eeal ; la /«/', faith ; fa youth ; U l>>n- 

. marriage. 

;:. . ! 

.i : /• mri, truth. 

4. / D8I 1 a- tiMlins. 

Ex. It i j nid retiring; ledormir, sleeping. 

I •• wh< ii :h i bj an sdjeedve, 

Ex. Us boi. • /""', ironical 

laughs. 

i orda take a plural form when they have become 

fully naturalized; a> are considered as genuine 

: onl) in th< 1 1"' follow* 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 



10 



ing words of such origin appear to have been naturalized, and 
occur in the plural form in standard authors : 



panorama 


panorama, 


lady 


lady, 


opera 


opera, 


deficit 


deficit, 


impromptu 


impromptu, 


examen 


examination, 


debet 


balance 


imbroglio 


dimculty, 


duo 


duo, 


incognito 


incognito, 


echo 


echo, 


macaroni 


macaroni, 


alinea 


paragraph, 


whig 


■whig, 


aparte 


aside, 


numero 


number, 


bravo 


bravo, 


piano 


piano, 


zero 


zero, 


pensum 


task, 


quolibet 


quodlibet, 


recepisse 


receipt. 


placet 


petition, 







6. Other parts of speech, used for the occasion as nouns. 

Ex. Trois un de suite, three ones in succession ; les oui et les 
nous, the ayes and noes. 

The following nouns are singular in French and plural in 
Eno-lish : 



avoine 


oats, 




metaphysique 


metaphysics, 


compensation 


amends, 




optique 


optics, 


cresson 


cresses, 




politique 


politics, 


fraisil 


cinders, 




pneumatique 


pneumatics, 


lie 


dregs, 




pourpre 


purples (a fever), 


linge 


clothes, 




rougeole 


measles. 


morale 


ethics, morals, 








The following nouns are 


plural in French 


and singular i: 


Inglish : 




, 






PLTXBAIi. 


SmGTJLAK. 




ELUKAL. 


SmGTJLAE. 


accordailles 


marriage (articles). 


confins 


boundary, 


alentours 


neighborhood, 




connaissances knowledge, 


armoiries 


coat of arms, 




decombres 


rubbish, 


assistants 


audience, 




depens 


expense, 


atours 


dress, 




epinards 


spinach, 


broussaillcs 


thicket, 




errements 


tracks, 


broutUles 


brushwood, 




fiangailles 


betrothal. 



20 



OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 



PZiUBAIi. 


SINGULAR. 




PLCRAL. 


SINGULAR. 


haptcme) 


font (baptis 


maJ), 


meuUes 


furniture, 


fnt is 


expense, 






(small wearing 
( apparel, 


immeiMa 


real estate, 




11 tppes 


■ diet s 


filth, 




dbseques 


funeral, 




entreaty, 




te/u'brcs 


darkness, 




buu miary, 




vergettes 


brush. 




ghost, 









The following nouns have both numbers in Fiench and are 

used in only one in English : 



PLURAL. 


AN!) PLUB. SINGULAR 


SING. AND PLCR. 


Alius 




Property 


bien, biena, 






kindness 


bonte, 




f< ndre, a ndres, 


hair 


. 


■ 




advice 








peopl 






frogria, progrto, 


poetry 













Who bore th>' '.i- enterprise? Burke's most 

fain" itiful and the Sublime.' 

boondaryhi I thi war hash gun. Wben did his 

betrothal I will the wedding follow soon i It ii 

• g f illowed irame- 
- the precious privili 
who " e wise. 1 

o the widow. My know ' 

iliil:i 

•: law II re noble, but I have 

liis father, who need I the forests and 

• i".r fuel. We stayed with her until dark ; when tl ey brought 

. we I. ii her. Wbl I 



NUMBEK OF NOUNS. 21 

PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES. 

Proper Names, as has been mentioned before, do not form a 
plural as long as they serve to designate but one person or 
object. Thus they remain unchanged even when they repre- 
sent two or more members of the same family, without forming 
a class of them. 

Ex. Les deux Corneille se sont distingues, both Corneilles have 
been distinguished ; VEspagne aproduit les deux Seueque, Spain 
has given birth to the two Senecas. 

They retain the singular form even before a plural article in 
elevated style, when their merit is referred to, by using a forci- 
ble ellipsis. 

Ex. Le merite des Homere, des Virgile et des Milton, the merit 
of (poets like) Homer, Virgil and Milton. 

Proper names, however, are frequently used as common nouns, 
and then they will appear in the plural form. This is done — 

1. When they are applied to whole classes of men, so that 
the individuality is completely sunk in the number. 

Ex. LVnstoire des douze Cesars, the history of the twelve 
Csesars ; les Stuarts rHy rentrereni plus, the Stuarts did not 
return there any more; parlous des Pharaons, let us speak of 
the Pharaos. 

2. When they are used to designate character or qualities 
taken from the bearer of the proper name. 

Ex. Metne aux Nerons on doit Vobeissance, we must obey 
even (men like) the Neros. Louis fit des Boilea.ux — Auguste 
des Virgiles, Louis made (poets like) Boileaus — Augustus, Vir- 
gils. 

3. When they are used to designate the works of the bearers 
of these proper names. 

Ex. Ce Musee possede deux Raphaels, that museum possesses 
two (paintings by) Piaphael. Les vrais Elzevirs sont rares, 
genuine (editions by the) Elzevirs are scarce. 



22 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Exercise. 

My brother Las bought two Horaces, one in Latin and one in Eng- 
lish ; I bought for myself a fine Listory of the twelve Caesars, in four 
volumes, which are hound like my Virgils and my Juvenals. Great 
generals are forgotten, but the people will never forget the "Washingtons 
and the Lafayettes. The last of the Bourbons, who has yet a throne in 
Europe, is the Queen of Spain ; the Stuarts have long ceased to be a 
reigning family. The Christians taught the pagans to respect their 
rulers, and that we owe obedience even to men like Nero. It is a 
curious fact in the history of French literature that there were two 
Boileaus and two Racines. The Catos never travelled otherwise, 
Di ither alone nor with their armies. 



PLURAL 

Compound Noons are in Preoch only those which consist ot 

three words coooected with each other by a hyphen. 

Ex. J/----- /<-<•<'•/, rainbow | , funny story; *<iu<h-vic, 

brandy. 

It will that they do not often correspond in 

h and in English, the latter language having a tendency 

eithei - them by a single word, as dandy and castor 

r t<> w rite the two component 

elements in one word, as fireman, pompier, and bookseller, 

French componnd nouns, which are not united by hyphens, 
but written in one word, are of coarse Bubject to the elemen< 
tary rales on the formation of the plural, and simply add an i 
to the 

i . librairtt, 
. i blemi d which n>lds n t<> iM.th parts 
! 

The general principles which alone can guide foreigners safely 
in learning how to form the plural of compound nouns are 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 23 

f. Only such parts of a compound noun as are declinable 
when standing alone, can take the sign of the plural. 
Ex. desfausses clefs, false keys : adjective and noun. 
des chefs-lieux, principal towns : noun and noun. 
des vice-presidents, vice-presidents : noun only. 
des passe-partout, master keys : neither part. 

2. Those parts only take the sign of the plural, which are 
used with a plural meaning. 

Ex. des arcs-en-ciel, rainbows ; del is not plural. 

des tete-a-tete, private interview ; tele is taken in the singu- 
lar meaning. 
Hence are obtained the fo'lowing rules : 
In compound nouns consisting of a noun and an adjective 
or a noun and a noun, without preposition, both parts take 
the sign of the plural. 

Ex. les francs-ma cons, the free-masons. 
les basses-cours, the poultry -yards. 
des choux-fleurs, cauliflowers. 
les chefs-lieux, the principal towns. 

Except the following : 

des Uanc-seings, blanks. 
des terre-pleins, platforms. 
des cJiemu-legers, liglithorse men. 
des Jwtels-dieu, hospitals (God's houses), 
and a few others of rare occurrence. 

Except, also, that the Adjective demi remains unchanged in 
compound nouns. 
Ex. des demi-7ieures, half-hours ; les demi-dieux, the demigods. 

Compound nouns, consisting of nouns connected by a pre- 
position, give the sign of the plural to the first only. 

Ex. des arcs-en-ciel, rainbows ; deux chefs d'eeuvre, two master- 
pieces ; les eaux-de-vie, the brandies ; des vers-a-soie, silkworms. 

Except des coq-d-l'dne, idle tales ; des pied-d-terre, temporarv 
residences ; des tete-d-tete, private interviews 



2± OX THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

Compound nouns consisting partly or wholly of indechna- 
ble parts of speech like adverbs, verbs or prepositions, take 
the sign of the plural only where it is admissible or not at all. 
Ex. les porte-huiliers (verb and noun), the castors. 

les avant-gardes (preposition and noun), the vanguards. 

des essuie-mains (verb and noun), the towels. 

des cure-dents (verb and noun), the toothpicks. 

des passe-partout (verb and preposition), master-keys. 

des pour-boin (preposition and verb), servants' fees. 

Except that when the mi-aning is not plural, even the declina- 
ble parts of such compound nouns will not take the sign of the 
plural. 
Ex. les ■■■ n U '■ , the night-caps (for <>m- head only). 
des i< alarm-clocks (the morning only). 

connter-poison (not against many poisons.) 

'1 1.- word garde, of frequent i ccurrence in compound nouns, 
- \ plural when it is the noun ff'trde, a keeper, but it 
remains anch^nged when it i- the verb irring to a 

thing. 

ic-ke spera. 
i-,>,.\ the screen (preserve-eight). 

[i ments, remain nn- 
_ I in the plural. 

8 i< forman). 

■ il ions 1 1 'ortuguese). 
itin). 
A list of certain compound nouns, with their plural appended, 
kin component parts of rare 
.: meaning : 

: I \K. l'Ui:\l.. 

marine aig 

butti Uants 

i ings 

lint.-t'M-K. /-"/'■ 

li 'hthone I'grrs 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 



25 



SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 


contre-danse 


cotillion 


contre-danses 


epine-vinette 


raspberry 


epines-vineties 


e/x-president (and others 
compounded with ex) 


[■ ex-president 


ex presidents 


fesfte-mathieu 


miser 


fesse-mathieu 


fier-diras 


bully 


fier-diras 


franc-alleu 


freehold 


francs-atteux 


franc-real 


a sort of pear 


francs-reals 


gomme-gutte 


gamboge 


gommes-guttes 


guet-apens 


ambush 


guets-apens 


grand'mere (and all others 


) 




in which grand is fol- 


>• grandmother 


grand'mires 


lowed by an apostrophe) 


) 




havre-sac 


knapsack 


havresacs 


loup-cervier 


lynx 


loups-cerviers 


loup-garou 


were-wolf 


loups-garous 


maitre-es-arts ) and others com- master of arts 

, V bined with &s . , , 

m%-careme \ or mi mid-lent 


maitres-es-arts 
mi-caremes 


nerf-ferure 


overreach 


nerfs-ferures 


orang-outang 


orang-outang 


orangs-outangs 


passe-port 


passport 


passe-ports 


pore-epic 


porcupine 


pores-epics 


pie-grieche 


speckled magpie 


pies-grieches 


semi-ton (and all combined 
with semi) \ 


> semi-tone 


semi-tons 


tragi-comedie 


tragi-comedy 


tragi-comedi-es 


vice-roi (and all combined 
with vice) 


>• viceroy 


nce-rois 



Exercise. 

Have you ever seen silkworms? they eat more voraciously than 
any other animals. These young ladies were his granddaughters, and 
there were two grandmothers in the house. We have lost the key to 
our room ; perhaps you have a master-key, with which we can open 
the door. Send the game-keepers and let them come up to-morrow 
early ; I want to go out shooting ; tell them especially to see if there 
are any hedgehogs in the garden ; I have never seen those animals. 
After the polonaise they danced several cotillions, and at last they 



26 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

finished with a reel. Dandies are not contemptible, because they may 
be very good men ; but they are often very ridiculous. Have you 
heard that the thieves broke last night into the poultry -yards of our 
neighbors and stole all their fowls ? The vanguards of the two armies 
met when the rearguards were at the distance of twenty miles the 
one from the other. The masons of this country have done a great 
deal of good to both parties during the last war. 



PLURAL OF ABSTRACT NOUNS. 

Abstract Nouns which designate a quality, virtue or vice, a 
condition or a general idea, independent of any connection with 
actual life, can have no plural as long as they arc strictly used 
in that sense. 

Ex. La bonle nous rend aimables, kindness makes us agreeable ; 
la beauti passs, V esprit rate, beauty fades, wit remains; la re- 
eherehe da bonheur, tlie search after happiness; la chariU cut la 
pra/ticrc d,a vertus, charity is the first virtue. 

These same nouns are, however, frequently employed as 
common nouns, t<> designate Bpecial ads, tbe effects of such 
qualities <>r the actual results of general ideas, and then they 
appear in the plural form. 

K\. Elk >"'a eombU dc softie's, she has overwhelmed me with 
kind sets; U >j a de% bmtutie d» tout l< temps, there arc beauties 
for all seasons ; o bonheun tu l"i devons^nout patf 

how many momenta of bappinesa we owe him! faitet vo» chart 
tit m sservf, perform your charities in secret. 



CHAPTER II 



ART1CI IS. 

The three Articles wttch the French language employs for 
the purpose of defining accurately the extent of the significa- 
tion »>f nouns arc derived from other parts of speech, as the 
Latin, the original form of the Flench, possessed no such part 



ARTICLES. 27 

of speech. There, on the contrary, the duty of the modern 
article was performed by the great variety of terminations, 
which formed the so-called declensions of Latin nouns. The 
complicated system of these varied and numerous forms was 
accessible neither to the dull ear of the barbarians, who con- 
quered the Roman Empire, nor to their uncultivated intellect. 
Hence the total loss of all inflections and the reduction of 
French nouns to one single form. The latter was now no longer 
capable of expressing case or number, and yet, as the newly 
formed language, arising from a mixture of Latin words with 
German forms, regained slowly its former power, a necessity 
arose for expressing the more delicate shades of meaning, and 
the relations which nouns had to other words in the same sen- 
tence. To supply the lost inflections, all the idioms that were 
descended from the Latin, the so-called Romance languages, 
began to place certain words before the nouns, which gradually 
fulfilled the same purpose. These were pronouns or numerals 
and prepositions. They took uniformly — 

1. The Demonstrative Pronoun, Me, ilia, Mud, and placed it 
before the noun to give it a more definite meaning. By con- 
stant use it lost part of its substance when thus employed, and 
soon nothing was left but the forms now in use, 

le, la, V and les. 

Before these pronouns they placed the two prepositions de, 
of, and ad, to, which from the same frequency of joined use, 
combined and produced the forms 

du, de la, de V and des, 
au, a la, a V and aux. 

So that de Vhomme literally means de ille homo, of that man, 
and a, lafemme, ad ilia femina, to that woman. 

2. The Numeral Adjective unus, una, unura, to give to the 
noun before which it was placed an indefinite meaning. This 



28 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

also lost, with all other words, its termination, retaining onl)' for 
the feminine a mute e, and thus producing the forms 

u n, ttne, 

and with the same prepositions 

(Tun, (Tune, 

a un, a une, 

so that cCun homme is literally de units homo, of one man, and 
dune f< inme, de una femina, of one woman. 

This is the origin of the forms of the Definite and Indefinite 
Article. The Partitive Article consists, as has been shown in 
the 1 first Part of this Grammar, simply of the preposition </e or 
of its combinations with the Definite Article: 
du, (/<■ /'/, dc /', des. 



PLACE ok tiik Aniici.i:. 

The place of the Article is invariably before the noun which 
it serves to qualify ; it allows, however, adjectives and the ad- 
verbs that quality them, to interpose between it and the noun, 
it qualifies these words together with the noun. 

Ex. /-" raieon vent Futile, reason calls for that which is -use- 
ful. Let petite* miehree, little miseries; le plus affreux ohjri, the- 
most frightful object. 

T<>ut, all, and the componnd nonna " ur, Afonrieur, 

■ place the article after them- 

Ex. T»ut If mondt\ the whole world ; toute tannei, tli«> whole 
vear; Monneur le Prendent^ Mr. President ; Madame l<i Com- 
tetee, the (ladj | < krantess. 



REPETITION or IMF AKTKl.R. 



Th'' Article osed to determine the signification of several 
nouns most be repeated before each noun. 



ARTICLES. 29 

Ex. Les lettres, les paquets et Vargent doivent tire affranchix, 
letters, parcels and money must be prepaid ; J'ai vu le pcre et 
la mire de at enfant, I have seen the father and mother of this 
child. 

The article before adjectives is not repeated when both ad- 
jectives qualify the same person or object. 

Ex. Le sage et ineux Fenelon, the wise and pious Fenelon ; la 
grande et magnifique fete du roi, the large and magnificent 
entertainment of the king. 

The article before adjectives must be repeated, if the two 
adjectives' refer to distinct persons or objects. 

Ex. Le premier et le second surintendant, the first and the second 
superintendent (two different persons) ; Pancien et le nouveau 
continent, the Old and the New World ; le second et le troisieme 
etage, the second and third story. 

The article may be omitted — 
Before two phiral nouns taken in a general sense : 
Ex. Le devouement des peres et meres, the devotion of fathers 
and mothers. 
Before two nouns connected by ou, or, which explain each other : 
Ex. Les deputes ou representatifs du peuple, the deputies or 
representatives of the people ; les Cesars ou empereurs de 
Borne, the Caesars or emperors of Rome. 



USE OF THE ARTICLES. 

The great principle which forms the basis of all the rules 
on the use of articles in French is this : 

Every noun must be accompanied by an article or its equiv- 
alent, unless it is so united with another noun, a verb or 
a preposition as to form but one idea with them. 

The following classes of words are equivalent to the article, 
and therefore fulfil the purposes of this fundamental rule as well 
as the article : 

The Possessive Adjectives : mon, ton, son, etc. 



30 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

The Demonstrative Adjectives: ce, cette, ces, etc. 

The Interrogative Adjectives : quel, lequel, etc. 

The Cardinal Numbers : un, dix, cent, etc. 

The Pronominal Adjectives: aucun, no; chaque, every; cer- 
tain, certain ; maint, many a ; mil, no ; plusieurs, several ; quelque, 
some, ttl, many a, in proverbial expressions, tout in the sense 
of every. 

Being equivalent to the article, these words, of course, can- 
not be accompanied by the article. 



USE OF DEFINITE AHTICLE. 

The Definite Article is placed before common nouns, when 
it is desired to take their meaning in a general sense — to repre- 
sent the whole class or species, or some definite part of the 
whole. The purpose is to give a definite meaning to the nouu. 

Ex. L"or est un uutnl, gold is a metal. 

J'ctutlit l, Frangaitf 1 study French. 

Let hommet sunt morlais, man is mortal. 

KlU omm l<i mtuigue, she ia fond of music. 

Jit prifire let ehevaux noire, I prefer Mack horses. 

La font n'esl pat la raieon, force is not reason. 

La suite dt ?,the effect ofgreal passions. 

This rule applies in like manner to other parts of spech u>ed 
f«>r the occasion as nouns. 

Ex. Vavart Ut misinit,!,, misers are unhappy (Adjective). 

Lt manger >t l< boirt, drinking and eating (Verb). 
R demand* I' j aaka whv (Adverb). 



U8K OF Till IMiUMIE AICTI. IK. 

The Indefinite A: I in French as in English, when- 

ever a vague, indefinite meaning is to be given to the noun. 

Ex. ATOM * OV0M Ml »u toUat, wr saw a soldier. 

Y a-t-il KM t'ylise ' is there a church there 1 



ARTICLES. 31 

It supplies the place of the partitive article, when a quality, 
virtue or vice is taken in a partitive sense and qualified by 
an adjective or other word following it. 

Ex. Get homme a du talent, that man has talent (Partitive 
Article). 
Cet homme a un talent remarquable, that man has re- 
markable talent. 
II montre un grand courage, he shows great courage. 
It is used, also, with the meaning of the English a certain 
hind of, when the noun is accompanied by an adjective. 

Ex. Nous y avons bu un vin delicieux, we drank there a de- 
licious (kind of) wine. 
II fit tin temps atroce, it was horrible weather. 



Exercise. 



Poverty is often the fruit of vice, but wealth is rarely the result of 
wisdom. Men are credulous, they believe every story that is told them 
with an air of authority. Bad books are often more dangerous than 
bad men ; they have subtle poison in their most charming pages. 
These laws give encouragement to industry, and agriculture is not 
neglected. Children are often unhappier than they appear, for griefa 
and sorrows are not measured by years. Youth is a happy age, but 
it passes away swifter than all other seasons of our life. Patience is 
one of those virtues which it is most difficult to acquire. Do you like 
strawberries ? I like raspberries better, but I cannot procure any at 
this season of the year ; spring is the only season when we have an 
abundance of them. The husband teaches mathematics and the wife 
music, but who teaches Latin and Greek ? Wine is very dear, and 
therefore beer is recommended by many physicians, but I like wine 
best. If we wish to distinguish truth from falsehood we must be 
very prudent, for fiction is often stranger than truth. Weak men are 
governed by their passions, and good men endeavor to follow princi- 
ples ; but men generally act more by impulse than from conviction. 
Young children are exposed to many dangers, yet, how many escape ! 
Life is a joy in youth, a duty in later years, and a burden in old age. 



32 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

USE OF THE PAKT1T1VE Alt IICLIC. 

The Partitive Article serves to designate some part of a 
species, some individuals of a class, or some portions of a whole. 
As there is ho such article in English, the end is here obtained 
by the use of some and any, or by the suppression of the article, 
leaving some or any to be understood. 

Ex. Tax du pain et du frontage, I have (some) bread and 
cheese. 
Voulcz-vous de la crtme / will you take (some) cream 1 
Nous n\umcs pas de chevaux, we had uo (not any) horses* 
II a moittre de la eagesse, he has shown (some) wisdom. 
Avez-rous du the et da cafe .' have you any tea and 

coffi 
The difference between this article and the definite article 
i- especially striking, when verb- like manger, toea^ooire, to 
drink, prendre, to take, I by their object. 

Ex. Prem i-wmt du tl i ' do yoa take tea I 

Prensz-vout U titff do you eat suj 
The partitive art: adjectives and in 

uces. 
Ex. H ■! a '■'• 6 '"/j" el rses there. 

de pain, we has.- no bread. 
ITeut-il j id he no < reditorel 



KxEliriSK. 



Bare patience and you •will overcome all these diffleoHlei 
me breed and b a tt e r and I want do eake Do yon take tea <>r uii eel 
■ sapper, bal I like tea better than 
e any Mends with berl I know- thai she lias no 
for everybody hues h»»r; but there ore always envi 
rnv. and I had no i 
bnl he said he had n 
bread. Do yoa Bke rmujI wlneal Dome and 1 will give you 
iu order to try my wine. II.- has shown seme courage la this affair, 



ARTICLES. 33 

bat I expected that he would also nave prudence. Are there any 
slaves in that country 2 There are no slaves there now, they have 
given them their liberty. I have seen men who had never known 
fear, but I have always doubted their courage. I wish I had pens, 
ink and paper, I would write letters to all my friends ; I have leisure 
now, and to-morrow I shall have work to do during the whole day. 
They have shown profound wisdom in the management of their affairs 
if we had had experience we would have succeeded. 



The rule that the partitive article consists of de only before 
adjectives, does not apply to compound nouns, consisting of 
an adjective and a noun, because here the former is a part of 
the noun itself. 

Ex. Ce sont des petits-maitres, they are dandies. 

JYous connaissohs des franc macons, we know some frea 
masons. 
Nor to adjectives, used as nouns. 
Ex Y a-t-il du nouveau? is there any news ? 

Melez du rouge et du bleu, mix some red and blue. 
The partitive article is, in a few instances, expressed in 
English by some of the, all of which is rendered by du, etc., 
only. 

Ex. Donnez-moi du doux, give me some of the sweet (wine). 
Aurez-vous des dores ? will you have some of tbe gilt 1 



Exercise. 



Will you not buy good lemons ? they are fresh and better than 
lemons are generally. The children are going to have new aprons, 
and their mother will buy linen for them. He told us long stories 
about the war, and wonderful adventures through which he had 
passed. We received them with hesitation, for although he loves 
Truth generally, he sometimes tells things which are not strictly true. 
Do you like novels, or do you think they do harm to young people ? 
This author shows that he has imagination, but he lacks judgment. 
That man has bad children and he does not punish them, although 



3i ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

lie knows that bad examples are pernicious. Do you not think that 
even soldiers are tired of long wars ? The Prussian troops have, bet- 
ter guns than the Austrians, but these have more experienced gen- 
erals. When he sat down at table he found himself surrounded by 
children and grandchildren, sons-in-law and daughters-in-law. 



The partitive article resumes its full form, du, de la, de T, 
and des after negative verbs, when they arc used interroga- 
tively at the same time. This is also the case when the nega- 
tive is not absolute, but only added with regard to the object 
of the verb. 

Ex. Ne juuez pas dts airs trop lonys, do not play too long 
tunes. 
Je ne vous do nne r ai pas da vers, I will give you no verses. 
N^a-t tl pas du amis qui puissent venir a sou aide? has 

he no friends that could come to his aid .' 
JPsurent-ellespasdesehapeauxf did they Dot wear bonnets? 
The partitive article is altogether suppressed, for the sake of 
euphony, when it is piece. led by the preposition de. 

Ex. La deposition de {des) tfmoins subomfa\ the evidence of 
bribed witnesses. 
On lui donna du vinaigre au lieu d'eau, they gave him 

vinegar inatead of water. 
Je dSelars mfaveur c/< biert\ I declare in favor of beer. 



THEAKTICLE WITH CERTAIN CLASSES OF NOUN& 

I.— with PBOPXB NAMI.S. 

Proper Names, m has already been seen in the chapter on 

nouns, take no article us long as they are Deed as genuine 
proper names. 

l.\. '' trop tdt ; Caesar waa killed too soon. 

11 rraawwfr/i uu j<u a Racine, he resembles Racine some- 
what. 



ARTICLES. 35 

But when they are used as common nouns, they are sub- 
ject to the same rules as the latter. 

Ex. Les Ratines ei les Molieres sont rares, (men like) Racine 
and Moliere are rare. Charles XII. etait l> Alexandre du Nerd, 
Charles XII. was the Alexander of the North. Cest tin 
vrai Caton, he is a real Cato. Donnez-moi le Virgile annote, 
give me the (copy of) Virgil with notes. Ou est V Horace de 
monjrere ? where is my brother's Horace ? Tai vendu le Guide 
que vous avez vu, I have sold the (painting by) Guido which 
you saw. 

Italian artists and writers are, after the manner of their 
country, spoken of with the article. Female singers also are 
thus quoted. 

Ex. Le Tasse est VHomere de Vltalie, Tasso is the Homer of 
Italy. Le Michel Ange n'aurait pas mieux/ait, Michael Angelo 
could not have done better. La Grisi va reparaitre, Madame 
Grisi is going to perform again. 

Proper names, preceded by titles, require the article before 
the latter, contrary to English usage. 

Ex. Le General Washington et les deputes, General Wash- 
ington and the Representatives. Oil est le docteur N. ? where is 
Dr. K? 

The article is also required before adjectives which qualify 
proper names, except Saint, which is considered as forming 
part of the name itself. 

Ex. Allez chercher le jeune Pierre, go and look for young Peter. 
OUt est done la petite Marie? where is little Mary ? 
Cest la fete de St. Jean, this is St. John's day. 



Exekcise. 



Marshal Lannes was the friend of the Emperor Napoleon and received 
many favors from his patron. Doctor Johnson was one of the first 
writers of England, and one of her most remarkable men. Have you 
read the history of Cardinal Woolsey, of his brilliant career, and his 



36 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

sudden downfall ? I went to see poor James and his sick brother 
to-day ; they were both very sad. King Richard went to the Holy 
Land, and when he returned he was made prisoner by his enemy, the 
Duke of Austria. "Where is young Lewis now ? I have not seen him 
for many years ; he and pretty Mary came every day to my house, 
and brought me a bouquet of flowers. 



II. — WITH THE NAMES OF COUNTRIES AND CITIES. 

The names of Countries are used in French with the definite 
article. 

a. When the countries are taken as a whole, or in any way 
individualized, as by ascribing to them certain qualities or t'une- 
tions. 

Ex. La France est i<n empire Jlorietant, France is a flourishing 
empire. L 'Italit a dkclan la guerre a FAutriche, Italy has de- 
clared war against Austria, On ne saurait trop admirer la con* 

<Ic I' AmjUUrrt, England's conduct cannot be too much* 
admired. 

'. When the countries are situated out of Europe and little 
known. 

Ex. , /'t'linc poup&e, the emperor 

of China is but a puppet J\ii vicu deux an* au Mexique, 1 have 
lived tw>> J MR in M.-x. 

II< in-, all •' - Dion, lee State-Unit, an accon> 

panicd by thf ar . 
Kx. J' '/ • from Maine t . . T< 

nia and Booth Carolina; (V vitnt d> la 
-.1 Louisiana. 

The names of coantri without the article — 

a. When "ii'.v a part, and not the whole, is referred to. 
E\. // '/■ /. r <i<me, !■<■ lives in Spain (somewhei 

■ comes from England 
and ia rod. 

The prepositions to and in ar.' both irau.slut--d in French i>y<-/i. 



ARTICLES. 37 

b. When they are used to qualify another noun in the man- 
ner of an adjective. 

Ex. Les rois de France en faisaient de meme, the kings of 
France (French kings) did the same. II pre/ere le tubac d?J£s- 
pagne, he prefers Spanish tobacco. Achetez-vous du colon 
d'Amerique ? do you buy American cottou ? 

The names of Cities take no article, when they are genuine 
proper names. 

Ex. Londres est plus grand que Paris, London is larger than 

Paris. II y a leplus beau musee a Dresde, there is a most beautiful 

museum at Dresden. // demeure a Vienne, he lives in Vienna. 

The prepositions in and at with the names of cities are both 

rendered, in French by a, unless they have the meaning of within, 

when it is dans. 

Ex. Qui est votre banquier a Paris t who is your banker in Paris ? 
II mourut d Naples, he died at Naples. La Revolution etait dans 
Paris, the revolution was in (inside of) Paris. 
But when they are made like common nouns, they are ac- 
companied by the arjicle. 

Ex. Le Havre de Grace (harbor of refuge) est un grand port, 
Havre is a large port. Nous irons a la Nouvelle Orleans, we 
shall go to New Orleans. La Haye est une grande ville en Hol- 
lande, The Hague is a large city in Holland. 



Exercise. 



Italy is truly the garden of Europe, and Norway the most sterile of 
all countries. Prussia and Austria are old and bitter enemies, but 
France induced them to make war against each other for her own 
benefit. The Pyrenees separate France from Spain and the Alps 
from Italy. I had lived ten years in Germany, when I emigrated to 
the United States and settled in North Carolina. Michigan is a pen 
insula, surrounded by great lakes and traversed by railroads. We 
landed at Havre, when we first came to France, and from thence we 
went to La Rochelle, where we remained two years ; after that we 
lived in Lyons and Marseilles. Have you ever been in New Orleans ? 
It is not the capital of Louisiana. The Bourbons were at one time 
kings of France, of Spain, and of Naples ; now the Queen of Spain is 



38 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

the only member of that family on a throne. He likes Burgundy 
wines better than any other ■nines ; for my part, I prefer Italian 
wines, and after them, the light French wines. The goldsmiths melt 
down Spanish dollars and French crowns. 



Iir. — WITH THE NAMES OF MONTHS AND DAYS. 

The names of Months in definitions of time are never used 
with the article, but accompanied by the preposition en, even 
when there is no preposition used in English. 

Ex. // arrivera ici in Aoid procltain, he will reach here next 
August ; la balaille fat livree en Jain, the battle was fought in 
June; nous y resterons jusqu'en Avril, we shall stay there till 
April. 

The names of Days, used as definitions of time, have no 
article nor preposition before them. 

Ex. Elk fit ici dimanche, she was here on Sun. lav ; nous 
nous reverrotu mereredi prochain, we shall meet again on next 
Wednesday. 

The addition of the Definite Article gives the meaning 
either — 

a. Of a definite day of that name. 

Ex II nit prit h Lundi >t il eckappa U Mardi, he was taken 
on Monday and escaped on Tuesday; je I'ai vu I, Vendredi 

Saint, 1 saw him Oti Good Friday. 

/.. Or of every t" the name of the day. 

K\. /.■ umrrier arrive U Jeudi, the mail comes on every 
Thursday. A & Samedi <t le Mercrtdi, we 

.:■ lessom on Satnrdaye and Wednesdays. 

The Indefinite Article may be added at in English. 

E\. Citato uu Dimuncht ti Figlise, it was on a Sunday at 
church. 

Ext ft< BE. 

IK- will iirrive in France in January <.r February and Stay them 
until Mason, when be will leuvc lur Denmark. We go to the country 



ARTICLES. 39 

in July and do not return to town until October. May is the month I like 
best of all the months of the year. In that remote neighborhood they 
have no mail but on Tuesdays and Thursdays ; my cousin receives 
her letters on Saturday. I saw her last Christmas-day ; she was then 
in bad health ; on Tuesday she was taken sick, and on Friday she 
died. Sailors have a general superstition that Friday is an unlucky 
day, and all the efforts made by intelligent captains and others to 
overcome the prejudice, have proved in vain. The laws of this coun- 
try do not permit any work to be done on Sundays, but the Jews are 
exempted, because they do not work on Saturdays. 



IV. — WITH NOUNS IN APPOSITION. 

Two nouns are said to be used in apposition to each other 
when one is added to explain the other, so that both designate 
the same person or object. 

The noun in apposition takes, in French, the article when 
it serves to distinguish the first from others of its kind, or 
when it is followed by a relative pronoun or other word, which 
shows its definite character. 

Ex. Votre frere, le capitaine, est la, your brother, the captain, 
is here. II n'eut qu'une tpee, son arrne favorite, he only had a 
sword, his favorite weapon. Musard, Vhomme qui dirigeait, 
Musard, the man who led. 

But when the noun in apposition is used as a mere adjec- 
tive, it has no article. 

Ex. Le pdon, embleme de Vorgueil, the peacock, emblem of 
pride ; Marie, divine beaute, Marie, divine beauty ; Tartafe, 
comedie de Moliere, Tartufe, a comedy by Moliere. 



Exercise. 



I have read in the newspapers that your brother, the sailor, has 
returned from abroad ; is your other brother, the soldier, also at home 
now ? The poet says : the butterfly, the perfect model of inconstancy, 
caresses all the flowers. Malherbes, a man of extraordinary know- 
ledge, was simple and artless, whilst his adversary, an ignorant man, 



40 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

claimed the highest honors. We were reading Ivanhoe, a novel by Wal 
ter Scott, when she entered the room, and Louisa, the eldest sister, ex- 
claimed : There comes Mary, the true copy of Rebecca 1 Those gen- 
tlemen, strangers to our country, were hospitably received, and Kos- 
suth, a man of rare genius, went almost in triumph through the 
Northern States. 



Nouns may be used in apposition to the verb to be, and 
other verbs oflike nature, as, to become, to be made, chosen, 
appointed, etc., in which case they will not be preceded by any 
article, although the English uses the indefinite article in 
sin-]] constructions. 

Ex. Heat musicien, he is a musician ; on Va nommi president 
he baa been appointed president; qui aiU ilu mairet who 
lia^ been chosen Mayor I il s'esi fait moine, he has become a 
monk. 

Bat it' the noun in apposition mark a distinction from the 
tii-: or express the character, either 1>\ a name <>r a designation 
it will be accompanied, as in English, by the indefinite or the 
partitive article. 

K\. i' \ ' ,. ■•■■ eti n„ ffercttfy that man is a Hercules. 

I .,.,(,',.-•, those young ladies 

are i 

/./A r&pon \Multe t such an answer is an 

insult. 

With the third person singular odtn the aubjeel is, in such 
i .i bj a and not bj it. 

\.\. i | drunkard. C'itltit uurfmnne 

, ,i y , i, a pen, she was a woman Buch as there ale few ; 
.... praii amit^ they are your true friends, 



K\ki:i iss, 



[talian t<> him, us he is an Italian; it' ho 
oriog teee, i could ool do the aune, us I dislike Portugaeafi 

■ ;,.,[ CsinOenS, the uuilmr of 



ARTICLES. 41 

the Lusiades, or you would not say that. Do you see those two 
ladies? They were nuns, but they have escaped from Cosenza, a 
famous convent ; now they are ladies of the great world, without that 
awkwardness, the effect of long seclusion. He was a man of genius 
and of great merit, and when he was chosen Governor of the State, 
the citizens were rejoiced at it. I thought you were a Spaniard, but I 
have learned since that you are a German. That man deserves no 
respect ; he is a gambler and leads a disreputable life. She is an 
excellent woman, and I hope that she will earn a livelihood ; she has 
been appointed governess to the Queen's children. He would have 
been a captain if he had not been a drunkard. 



V. WITH NOUNS OF MEASURE. 

The definite article is used in French with nouns, express- 
ing measurement in weight, time or money, where the English 
uses the indefinite article or a preposition. 

Ex. Coffee costs twenty cents a pound, le cafe coute vinyt 
sous la livre. 
We pay him ten dollars a week, nous lui payons dix 

dollars la semalne. 
Four times a year, quatrefois Van. 

Give them three francs for each person, donnez-leur trois 
francs la per Sonne. 



Exercise. 

These men agreed to work for a dollar a day, but they ask now ten 
dollars a week, which is nearly two dollars a day. How do you sell 
your coffee ? I can tell you some for thirty cents a pound or for ninety 
dollars a bag. The mail used to arrive here twice a week ; now we 
get it five times a week. I see him twice a day, in the morning at 
breakfast and at night before going to bed. I will give you twenty- 
one pounds per barrel, if you can sell me a hundred and twenty each 
year. These engravings were very cheap ; they only cost twelve 
cents a piece or ten dollars a hundred. There was one pineapple for 
each person, but several guests did not eat that dangerous fruit. 



42 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Per cent, is translated in French by pour cent. 

Ex. I will pay you ten per cent., Je vouapayerai diz pour ant. 



The English usage of employing names of relationship, like 
father, mother, etc., without any article, is inadmissible in 
French. There the possessive pronoun is used before such words. 
Ex. Father says it is so, monpere dit que e'en est ainsi. 
Where is uncle gone to ? voire oncle, ou est-il alle ? 
Call sister at once, appdez votre sueur de suite. 
The English usage of employing the preposition to in terms 
expressive of blood or business relations and the like, is also not 
found in French. The preposition de is used in all such cases. 
Ex. He is physician to tlie Queen, r\s( U medecitt de In Rein*. 
He was appointed architect to the Institute, on Ca noav 

i/u' urc/uhctc de FZlUtUut, 



EnBOzax. 



Brother said he would never consent to the captain's marriage with 
slater, because she was too young yet It la considered a great honor 
in England to be appointed physician to the Queen. She is the only 
heir to iliut iiiiinriisr property, tor the prince, s man of genius, but 
v.ry miserly, bad acquired vast i states in Spain and in Portugal. What 
dot .- mothi r say to this extraordinary Brent ! 



THE OMISSION OF THE ABTICLE, 
Lrticle is omitted before Nouns, contrary to the general 
principle that every noon in French must be preceded l>y aa 
article <»r its equivalent, in the following cases: • 

1. In addressing peaaona <>r things, by apostrophe. 

Ex, Homme ijui <jn> tu SOU, man, whoever thou art; jUurt 

c/uirmni.tis, qui urntz la campujuc .' charming llowers, adorning 
the field* ! 



ARTICLES. 43 

2. To give greater energy to animated style, as e. g. in 
enumerating several persons or objects, in proverbial expres- 
sions, etc. 

Ex. Je ne trouve par tout que lache fatlerie, 
Qu 1 injustice, interet, trahison, fourberie. 
Everywhere I meet with nothing but mean flattery, 
Injustice, selfishness, treachery, dishonesty. 
Plus fait douceur que violence, we can do more by gentle 
means than by violence. 

Contentement passe richesse, contentedness is better than riches. 
3T. In giving titles to books and addresses of persons. 
Ex. Preface. Reflexions generales. 

II demeure rue Piccadilly f Quartier St. James, a Londres. 
He lives in Piccadilly, St. James', London. 
4. After the following conjunctions and adverbs: ni, soit, 
jamais and tout, when the nouns following them are used in a 
partitive sense. 

Ex. Le sage n'a ni amour ni haine, wise men know neither 
love nor hatred ; soit inspiration de Dieu, soit erreur de Phomme, 
either divine inspiration or human error ; jamais, peut-etre, his- 
torien n'a ete plus attrayant, never perhaps was a historian more 
attractive ; tout est vanite, all is vanity. 

The indefinite article used in English after what is omitted in 
French. 

Ex. Quel liomme ! what a man ! Quelle aventure ! what an 
adventure ! 



Exercise. 



Man, whoever thou art, remember, wlien pride tempts thee, that 
thy existenee was a play of Nature, that life is but a play of Fate, 
and that thou wilt soon be the play of Death ! When Flechier spoke 
of him in his sermon he said : Citizens, foreigners, enemies, nations, 
kings, emperors, weep for him and revere him ! Nations, praise the 
Lord ! Why do you not speak, brother John, are you sick ? He gave 
me a list of the books, which he had lent you : Voltaire's novels, La 



44 ON THE PABTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Fontaine's Fables, Boileau's Poems and Flt'chier's Funeral Sermons. 
I saw written on this sheet of paper, French Exercises, but I think it 
was a letter. What a beautiful landscape! It is the loveliest I have 
ever seen in all my journeyings. He did it unconsciously ; and his 
motive was neither ignorance nor malice. Never has general earned 
a purer renown and never were battles fought more carefully. Every 
thing was confusion and terror, and never was nation more seriously 
frightened. 



The Article is omitted also, when a noun forms with another 
part of speech such :i close union as to represent but one idea. 
This is done by joining a Noun — 

1. To another Noun, which it qualifies after the manner of 
an adjective, thus forming a compound noun. The union ia 
shed by means of the preposition de or « or en, after 
which, then, no articlo is used. 

Ex. nnc cloche (Talarme, an alarm-bell. 
ni,r brone </ dents, a tooth-brash. 
. :m iron railing. 
i Verb, with which it forma a new verb. 
Ex, ■ r ■</-, t" !>.• afraid. 
• • be thirsty. 

take leave. 
porter lence. 

::. To a Prej oeition, by which union a. Kerbs are made. 
Ei. en rffi t, in 
par force, fore 
life, immedi 

If th<- purpose is nut to form an adverb, but if e. g. thr> noaa 
. from the preposition by an adjective, the general 
rnleapi and^tne article must be supplied 

I . bravely ; aoee "" grand 

r. , \<\ superior 
tone. 

article is, also, emitted for euphony's sake before the two 



ARTICLES. 45 

adjectives dicers and different, to avoid the immediate repetition 
of two d's. 

Ex. Nous awns employe differents moyens, we have used differ- 
ent means; diverses personnes me Vont recommande, various 
people have recommended him to me. 



Exercise. 

Soldiers, this day of glory has been crowned with complete success ; 
continue fb serve your country zealously and courageously and you 
will restore peace to your fellow citizens. Let us receive them with 
politeness, for Machiavelli, an Italian writer, says we must treat our 
enemies as if they might become our friends, and our friends as if 
they might become our enemies. We were hungry and thirsty, but 
she was even more thirsty than the others. Different persons use 
different words, for some think with rapidity, others with grave con- 
sideration. "Windmills are unknown in this country, but steam-mills 
are not rare. Have you any coffee-cups or teacups in your sideboard ? 
I would like a cup of tea before supper, for I am quite exhausted 



ENGLISH" COMPOUND NOUNS IN FRENCH. 

English Compound Nouns are generally made by uniting 
simply two nouns in one and writing them in one word, as 
penman, nightcap, windmill, &c. In French a preposition is 
required to unite the two nouns, and this preposition varies 
according to the precise relation in which, according to the 
meaning, one noun stands to the other. That noun which 
qualifies the other is placed after it, and is, as has been stated 
above, not preceded by an article, because it forms with the 
first but one idea, that of the new compound. 

The prepositions which serve for this purpose are principally 
en, a and de, which are used in the following manner: 

The preposition en expresses the material of which the first 
noun is made, and this only in such cases where special atten- 
tion is called to the substance — in ordinary cases de suffices. 



46 ON" THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. Cette coupe est en or, et point en argent dore, this cup is of 
gold, and not of silver gilt. 
Une grille en bronze cotiterait plus qii'une grille en fer, a 

bronze railing would cost more than an iron railing. 
Une eglise en pierre taillee, a church built of cut rock. 
The preposition a expresses — 

1. The purpose for which the first noun is intended. 

Ex. Une tasse a the et un verre a rin, a teacup and a wine-glass. 
(Test u» moulin a farine, this is a flour-mill. 
Des b&teaux u vapeur, a voiles, a mines, steamers, sailing- 
Is, rowboats. 

2. The main characteristic by which the first noun ia distin- 
guished from others of the same class. 

Ex. J*ai etc mania par un serpent a sonnettes, I have been 
bitten by a rattlesnake. 

'ii homme </ /litres, he is a literary man. 
lis u< nniit que des instruments a cordes, they had only 
stringed instruments. 
The preposition • /- expresses all other relations between the 
two parts of a compound noun, n«>t conveyed by en and <V. 
Ex. They took our watches and gold rings, Us prirent nos 
montres 1 1 mot bagues (Tor. 
I prefer river-fish to sea-fish, j* pri/en Us poissonsdt 

-, aux paissons </< >/">•. 
Will von take ;i eup of tea or of coffee f Voulet-vou 
in.' Urns '/' the" mi de ea/i f 
If the second nonn should express something that enters into 
the composiuoa of the first) it retains, in its meaning, its inde- 
pendence, and will, then fore, have to be preceded by the arti- 
cle, siii'-'- it does not produce a new idea, nor form a genuine 
Compound noun. 

Ex. Vbus aura >< t huttres <t »><< omelette aux eon- 

fitureSf you shall have oyster soup and an omelet with 

prosenri -. 



ARTICLES. 47 

Donnez-moi un pot de pommade au jasmin, give me a box 

of pojnatum of jasmine. 
Des tableaux a Vhuile et au pastel, oil paintings and pas- 
tel paintings. 
English compound nouns have occasionally a present par- 
ticiple for their first part. According to the rules on the use of 
prepositions, they can only be followed by the Infinitive, and 
this is, therefore, the form that must be given to these par- 
ticiples. 

Ex. He wants a frying-pan, il luifaut un poele afrire. 

They are in the dining-room, Us sont dans la salle a 

manger. 

In English, the words man, woman, boy and girl are often used 

in compound nouns to designate the vendor of the article 

expressed by the first noun. In French, marchand or marchonde 

are used for this purpose. 

Ex. Here comes the milkman with his bells, voila le marchand 
de lait avec sa sonnette. 
The little apple-girl did not come to-day, la petite mar- 
ckande de pommes n'est pas venue aujourdhui. 
In English compound nouns the first part is left in the 
singular number, although it may have a plural meaning. No 
such anomaly exists in French, where the noun takes its proper 
form. 

Ex. A five-dollar bill, un billet de cinq dollars. 

Where is the ox-stall ? oil est Vetable a boeufs ? 



Exercise. 



It is strange for so rich a man to wear a silver watch, and especially 
when it is fastened to a costly gold chain. The fashion for this sum- 
mer is to wear silk dresses, straw bonnets and thread gloves ; in win- 
ter I prefer buckskin gloves. They stole all our silver spoons, and we 
were compelled for some days to use iron spoons, which we found with 
uur servants. Have you ever drunk goat's milk ? It is very rich, but 



■iS OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

the odor is unpleasant. "When the enemy entered the town, one man 
ran out with a table-knife, another with a kitchen-knife in his hand ; 
but everybody had a weapon. He has in his store excellent printing- 
paper, but he has no fine letter-paper. I would like to give you some 
wine, but I have not a wine-glass nor any glass in the house ; the 
dwelling-house was burnt, and this is nothing but a tool-house, which 
serves me for a week. She hid the note in the dining-room on the 
tea table under a flower-pot, and we were all looking for it in the 
sleeping-rooms up stairs. Steamers and screws of every kind cross 
the Atlantic during the whole year, and some are iron vessels ; sailing- 
ships and wooden vessels diminish constantly in number. I saw in 
Venice two beautiful alabaster columns before the high altar of an old 
church ; they arc far more beautiful than marble pillars. Are these 
really gold chandeliers, <>r is it only an imitation in silver? I can give 
you a ten-dollar bill, if you can repay me to-morrow; I cannot pay 
my hill at tl and I owe a one money to the sign-painter. 

Dave you ever heard a charcoal-man in London? his cry is very 
peculiar. 



MONBIEl'R, MADAME, ETC. 

When it became the custom to address persons by some title 
expressive of reverence, the nations tint bad spoken Latin 
emplo v the wo ler, for that purpose. 

its full form is in French preserve 1 in the Boftened word seigneur, 
which still holds the preeminence as "the Lord" by excellence. 

Ex. v S hrist, 

This was united to the \ essive pronoun and formed the 

title Monmgneur, formerly given to the princes of the royal 

I and still bestowed on very high personages, such us 

Cardinals. , however, proved too long and camber- 

t'..r daily use and soon dwindled down into Sieur, which 

wu formei it now occurs only in legal docu- 

r .V. X. fit eiti de pa . ■■ . Mr. N N. u 

summoned t" a] 
IhbsMwr again was still farther shortened into wr, which 



ARTICLES. 40 

also, once very generally used, is now strictly confined to sover- 
eign rulers. 

Ex. Sire, les sujets de Voire Mujeste la felicilent, Sire, the 
subjects of your Majesty congratulate you. 

Through the Norman French, finally, this sire became familiar 
to the English people, by whom it was reduced to its present 
form of sir, now the universal title given to man. 

In like manner was the word domina, lady or mistress, chosen 
to address women, and with it a spurious diminutive form, do- 
micella, little lady. Softened and slightly changed, these words 
have become dame and demoiselle, and are in this form used 
together with sieur. 

All four words are habitually combined with the possessive pro- 
nouns mon, ma, and mes, and thus produce the words Monseigneur. 
and Messeigncurs, Monsieur and Messieurs, Madame and Mes- 
dames, Mademoiselle and Mesdemoiselles. As the use of these 
words is somewhat different from English words of the kind, the 
following rules will be given : 

Monsieur and Messieurs are used — 

1. Before proper names, like the English Mr. and Messrs. 
Ex. Connaissez-vous Mr. Lefebvre ? do you know Mr. Le- 

febvre ? 
Cette lettre est adressee a M.M. Blond & Vie., this 
letter is directed to Messrs. Blond & Co. 

2. Without a name, like the English Sir ;ind Gentlemen, in 
addressing others. 

Ex. Monsieur, je ne vous comprends pas, Sir, I do not under- 
stand you. 
Mais, Messieurs, vous demandcz trop. but, Gentlemen, 
you ask for too much. 

3. With the article or pronoun, like the English gentleman 
and gentlemen, to designate persons as such. 

Ex. Ext-ce un monsieur, qui desire me voir? is it a gentler 
man who wants to see me ? 



50 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

// y eut plus de dames que de messieurs, there were more 

ladies there than gentlemen. 
Ce tnonsieur-la pourrait vous le dire, that gentleman there 
might be able to tell you. 

Monsieur does not express the English gentleman, -when this has 
any other meaning, but that of man in contrast with child or woman. 
When gentleman is used to express a man of good manners, well- 
dressed, etc., the French say un hommt cornnu Ufaut,& man as he 
onght to be. When it is used to convey the idea of a man of high 
principles and sterling character, they say un h. nr, a 

man of honor. 

Madam* and Mesdetmet are used — 

1. Before proper name?, like the English Mrs. and the 
plural. 

Ex. Mine. Vieuztemp* oA demeure-t-elle f where does Mrs. 
Vieuxtemps live I 

- Vi irdot, that Bchool 
is kepi by the ladies Viardot 

•_'. Without a name, like the English Madam and Ladies in 

addressing ol 
Ex. '4 bonies, Madam, yon over- 

whelm me with kindness, 

Wesdamn ■. please follow me, ladies. 
The v. . ;.] ladies, ased in speaking not t<> but of 

third persons, are rendered by dorm and dames without the 
. •• pronoun, 
Ex. I t que vont-elles /aire ? just look at 

those ladies, w bat ar 1 thej aboul ! 
CetU ''/', that lady seems to know 

me. 
M ds( '1 precisely in the 

same way u \ia I ai d bf im, but apply only to unmar- 
ried ladies, without regard t<> their 

Ex. ./'<" Vhonm i 1/ /I have the bo 

of speaking to Miss B 



ARTICLES. 51 

Je ne saurai rim vous refuser, Mademoiselle, I can refuse 
you nothing, young lady. 

The simple word demoiselle and its plural, are used to desig- 
nate unmarried ladies. 

Ex. Sa soeur est encore demoiselle, his sister is still unmarried. 
Les dames attendront id; les mariees de ce cote, les 
demoiselles de Vautre, the ladies will wait here — the 
married ladies on this side, the unmarried on that. 
All three forms, Monsieur, Madame and Mademoiselle, and 
their plurals, are in French prefixed to titles of dignity and of 
relationship, the latter, however, only when referring to rela- 
tives of the person to whom we speak. 

Ex. Monsieur le comte est parti ce matin, the count left this 
morning. 
Madame la baronne est-elle ches elle ? is the baroness at 

home ? 
Messieurs les Senateurs se sont rassembles, the Senators 

have reassembled. 
Comment se porte Mme, voire mere ? how is your mother ? 
J'ai vu Mesdemoiselles vox soeurs qui viennent de rentrer. 
I have seen your sisters who have just come back. 

The same words are used occasionally instead of the pro- 
nouns, as expressions of extreme politeness, from motives of 
great courtesy or of bitter irony. 

Ex. Monsieur voudrait-il me rendre ce service ? could you 
render me this service ? 
Madame n'est-elle pas Francaise ? are you not French, 

Madam ? 
On ne saurait rendre trop de graces a Monsieur, we cannot 

be too grateful to you, Sir. 
Que Madame ne sefdche, on s'en va de ce pas, do not get 
angry, Madam, T am going at once. 



52 OX THE PAET3 OF A SEETTENCE. 

Exercise. 

I know these ladies, but they do not know me ; two of them were 
the same young ladies we met last night after the opera. lie intro- 
duced me to two gentlemen from Mexico, who are here on a political 

in, with a letter from the Cardinal. Here are seats for the ladies, 
but where are you going to place the gentlemen - .' A man who 
can act thus is not a gentleman, -whatever may be his wealth 
and his social position. Who was it that rang the bell : was it 
a beggar or a gentleman'.' It was your father, Sir. accompanied by 
jrour grandmother. Did y>>u meet your sisters, Madam', they were 
taking a walk by the sea-shore. When he had done this, he said in a 
low tone: Captain. I am s^rry for it, and I beg your pardon. Doctor, 
1 wish you would have the kii le and see my daughter; 

she is now witli ynur -wife, and awaits your return with impatience, 
bays met your mother in Paris; the young': 

well and enjoyed the pleasures of that great audbrilliimt d v. 



CHAPTER III 



_ <'at principle which determines the form under which 
ippcara in a - tlii- : that the Adjective, 

being, tfa '■• ''li it in 

it ii. , |j( ctivo or noon stand 

tide l-v -id«- or are ach other; if in meaning 

i i:i form. 

ben they are 

little. 

that part which i: 

M.j i 
high. 



ADJECTIVES. 53 

lis portaient des bus (M.) de sole (F.) blancs (M.), they 

used to wear white silk stockings. 
Dovtus-moi une brosse (S.) a afente (P.) molle (S.), give 
me a soft tooth-brush. 
A few adjectives appear to be exceptions to this fundamental 
rule, but the exceptions are only apparent, and the non-agree- 
ment of these adjectives with their nouns is easily explained. 
They are the following : 

1. JVu, demi and feu, under certain circumstances, remain 
unchanged before feminine or plural nouns. 

J\ ~u, bare, is placed before nouns, connected with them by a 
hyphen, and forms, then, so far a part of the noun that it re- 
mains unchanged. If it is placed after a noun, it becomes 
again a common adjective, subject to the rule. 

Ex. On Va vu qui marckait nu-tete et nu-pieds, he has been 
seen walking bare-headed and bare-footed. 
II avail la tete nue et point de gants, his head was bare and 
he had no gloves. 

2. Demi, half, is in like manner prefixed to nouns, and then 
forms part of them. When separated, it is declined like all 
adjectives. 

Ex. Restez ici une demi-keure jicsqu'd mon reiour, stay here 
half an hour until I return. 
Un homme issu d'un sang fecond en demi-dieux, a man 

born of a race fertile in demigods. 
Le discours a dure une heure et demie, the speech lasted 
an hour and a half. 

Demi may also sometimes be used before adjectives, as demi- 
mort, half dead, bat generally its place is supplied by a moitie, or d 
demi, because in these cases it becomes a genuine adverb. When half 
is repeated, it is rendered by moitie. 

Ex. Le drapeau est moitie rouge moitie Mane, the flag is half white 
half red. 



51 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

Half before a noun is expressed, when not forming-, as demi, 
part of the noun, by d moitie. 
Ex Apres le drome "u est admU J moitie prix, after the drama, ad- 
mittance at half price. 

Feu, late, is used either before the article or after it; in 
the former case it remains unchanged, in the latter, which 
occurs when we wish to distinguish a deceased person from a 
living one of the same rank or name, it is declined. 

Ex. J'ui out dire a feu hat tour, 1 have heard my late sistOI 

/. 'en usaii pas rrr,„i//< la Reine actuelle, the 

late Queen did Dot act like the present Queen. 
_'. Cfrand, great, in its feminine form, grunde, is occasionally 
used as part of a compound noun. It is then written orantP 
and remains nucha! 

Ex. II y aura deux graruTft . there will be two 

il holidays this month. 
Tl ports trots grand? voiles aux grand 'vergues, she carries 
.! the mainyards, 

quent expressions of this kind : 
' s, grandmother. . bard labor. 

1. ar. 

■ 

■ inch, Qrand'rus, main street 

banger. < I ball 

' laid. i Ktreme thirst. 

\ postpaid, is used adverbially, and then re- 

ma 08 tin.': itlVO it is BUbject to the •_ 

■ ttres, 1 lia\e 

you, prepaid, all y>ur lettres. 

1 ut apporta </>/• deux lettres frauche* 

i mail brought you onl\ two prepaid lctt< rs. 

!. ci-joint, enclosed, y oem- 

i, although participles, and 



ADJECTIVES. 55 

as such subject to the same rules as adjectives, remain un- 
changed when they are used as adverbs, before their nouns. 
Ex. Excepte ces cas, il rCy a pas de difference, except in these 
cases, there is no difference. 
Ces cas sont exceptes, these cases are excepted. 
Vous trouverez ci-joint deux lettres cacketees, you will find 
enclosed two sealed letters. 
Beaucoup and peu, being adverbs, cannot be used for many 
and few as adjectives, but their place is supplied by rare and 
nombreux. 

Ex. True friends are few, les vrais amis sont rares. 

The book is good but its faults are many, le livre est bort, 
mais les f antes sont nombreuses. 
A large number of adjectives are used adverbially in French, 
i. e., without any change of form. They are mainly such as 
express an impression made upon the senses, like haut, loud, bus, 
low, bon, good, and mauvais, bad (of odor), vite, quick, lent, slow, 
and those representing languages, Erancais, French, Anglais, 
English, etc. Being true adverbs in these cases, where they 
qualify, not a noun but a verb, they remain unchanged. 

Ex. Elle chante trop bas pour une sulle de concert, she sings 
too low for a concert-room. 
Paries done plus haut, on ne vous entend pas, speak 
louder, they do not hear you. 
r Allez vite chercher le medecin, go quickly for the doctor. 
II parle Italien, Espagnol, et deux autres langues, he 
speaks Italian, Spanish and two other languages. 

Adjectives of color, finally, are sometimes nothing else but 
nouns used adverbially. In that case they remain unchanged,, 
the expression being evidently elliptical and the words couleur 
de, color of, supplied in mind. 

Ex. Elle avait une robe rouge et des rubans marron, she had 
on a red dress and chestnut colored ribbons. 



56 OX THE PARTS OF A BENTBNCE. 

II parte toujours des gants paille, he always wears straw 
colored gloves. 



Exercise. 

I went to my tailor and told kirn to make me a dress-coat of hit. 
bust black cloth. St. Louis carried a crown of tliorns, barefooted and 
bareheaded, from the wood of Vincennes to Xotre-Dame. I waited 
there half an hour, and I would have waited an hour and a half, but 
ii after my arrival. Two pounds and a half of meat make 
a very good Boap, especially if you have an abundance of vegetables. 
was as well as the late princess of Conti among those who 
flattered themselves with this hope. He has studied three years and 
a half in some of the German universities. The Spanish flag is half 
r.'d ani half yellow, the French flag is the tricolor. He is much to 
1h- pitied, for, although thi Lb ruin are many, such cae 

honesty as his are few. It is an order of the Gods, that ia 

never broken, that they sell as very dear the gifts which they make 

if you walk fast, y< . take him, but when yon 

I <>r he will nol hoar you. These flowen 

smell had ; I wish you w< uld bring me some that smell good. 



COMPol NI» 1DJB0TIVX8. 

ound Adjecl I of two adjectives connected, 

lik<- compound nouns, by a hyphen. The manner in which 
with the noun they qualify depends not on their 
form but on their meaning. 

[f both adj . both will agree with it. 

1\. .V des perdrix grisea blanches, we 

have in this country white and gray partridges. 

If <■: the latter alone is 

declined. 

. this field has 
thin. - in it. 

i piupart meurt, of new-born 
children the majority 



ADJECTIVES. 57 

If the two adjectives qualify each other, which is the case in 
adjectives of color, both remain unchanged. 

Ex. J'aime beaucoup la sole bleu-clair, I am very fond of 
lioditrblue silk. 



ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING SEVERAL NOUNS. 

The manner in which adjectives that qualify two or more 
nouns agree with the kvter, is determined by the following 
rules : 

An adjective which qualifies two or more nouns of the same 
gender is put in the plural and agrees in gender with them. 
Ex. Le riche et Vindigent sont sujets a la mfcme lot, rich and 
poor are subject to the same law. 
J" 1 admire sa douceur et son egalite d' 'esprit merveilleuses, I 
admire her marvellous gentleness and equanimity. 
If the nouns are of different gender, the adjective is put in 
the plural masculine, but care is taken to place the masculine 
noun nearest to the adjective. 

Ex. // avail sa vie el son bonheur attaches au succes, his life 
and his happiness depended on success. 
J\vi trouve ma plume et mon papier gates, I found paper 
and pen spoilt. 
An adjective placed after several nouns which are syno- 
nyms, agrees with the last only. 

Ex. Touie sa vie iHa ele qii'un travail, qiCune occupation con- 
tinue, all his life has been but one continued work and 
labor. 
Le fer, le bandeau, la flamme est toute prtte, the sword, 
the bandage, the pile is quite ready. 
An adjective qualifying two nouns, connected by a conjunc- 
tion so as to exclude one another, appears in the plural mascu- 
line. 

Ex. II y a un homme ou une femme ages, there is an old man 
or an old woman. 



58 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS. 

Many French adjectives can be used as nouns by the simple 
addition of the article. Their form will be that of the noun 
which is understood. 

Ex. Le saye (Thomme sage) se sert des fous jyour alter a ses 
fins, the wise man uses the fool to attain his end. 
Unecoupable (femme coupable) aimee est bientot iunocente, 

a beloved criminal is easily (thought) innocent 
Les menteurs les plus grands duent le vrai quelquefois t 
the greatest liars tell the truth sometimes. 
Attention must be had, however, to the fact that in French, 
aa in English, not all adjectives can be used as nouns alike ; some 
r\ ate men only, as l> riche, the rich, lepauvre, the poor, le notr 
then ■, the white man, h sage, the wise man, Vavare^ 

the miser, while others designate abstract qualities only, as U 
beau, the beautiful, U prat, all that is true, le faux, all that is 
latter, expressing abstract ideas, cannot take 
the plural form. 



Km RCXBS. 

Yuur brot] ■ ra are present, but your mother has not yet 

c in ; how long "Hi she ox your father i»- aheent v The \»»n and 

tin- rich, the Imprudent and the prudent, subject n> the tame law, 
undergo the same G I cj and majestj depicted on the face of 

ppineea of his people. 1! 
there, Listening t" the sermon, moutb an I eyes or* d and all attention. 
Rome with a sustained gentleness and sweetness. 
■v. tl lilt Improper confidence will inak<- you 
[ore vour old friends, withoul w inn the 

firemen rushed from the house, they bad their faces ami hands burnt 
un<l their clothes and boftte torn t<> \i> ous men are B 

the whole world, s] are only their own euemiea. The rich 

owe help to the i r. but the rich are <>t't.Mi too lazy to ■ -r:. n t it ami 

the poor too proud to accept it We ought alwaj for the 

. .ihior the I 



ADJECTIVES. 5£J 



THE PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 



The general rules on the place of Adjectives have been given 
in the First Part of this Grammar, and it remains here only to 
repeat, that no absolute law exists on the subject, the place 
depending more on the peculiar genius of the language and the 
established usage than on any general principle. The adjec- 
tive placed before the noun is considered as more intimately 
connected with it, and as making, by falling first upon the ear of 
the listener, a stronger impression. Hence accented adjectives 
are placed before the noun. In the next place, the laws of 
euphony forbid long adjectives being placed before monosyllabic 
nouns; and generally, shorter adjectives precede longer nouns. 
Les champetres airs, country air ; des terrestres soins, earthly 
cares, and the like, are intolerable in French. On the other 
hand, plural adjectives have to precede nouns beginning with 
a vowel, as de brillants atoms, brilliant surroundings, de cou- 
rageux amis, bold friends. 

The construction of the sentence has its influence on the 
piace of the adjective in so far as an adjective followed by its 
regimen must necessarily be placed after the noun, else it would 
be separated from its regimen. 

Ex. C'est un malheur commun a tous, that is a misfortune 
common to all. 
Quels sont les fiefs dependants de ce duche? which are 
the fiefs that belong to this duchy? 

The place of the adjective depends, finally, so completely 
on the genius of the language, that large numbers of these 
words actually change their signification with their place, 
having one meaning before and another after the noun. The 
following are the most important adjectives of this class, 
accompanied generally by those nouns in connection with 
which alone they have the double meaning : 

Un bon Iiomme un Jwmme bon 

a simple artless man a good, affectionate man. 



60 



OX THE PARTS OF A SEXTEXCE. 



tin brave homme 
an honest man 
itne certaixe nonvelle 
some sort of news 
mon cher ami 
my dear friend 
in,, CoMMUXE udx 
a unanimous voice 
quel cruel, homme ! 
what a tiresome fellow ! 
la derm ere 

the last year of any period 
•rde 

'>ut of tune 

\ I'Ur 
a bad light 
in, kiki; pottron 

oward 

Ml n KD 

nn excessive liar 

in, i;ai vn r lonnme 
a clever man 

MM 

■ man 

the air of high boc 
/. ii \ i ; 
a hanght; 

an honest man 

Sdpio 

• MM 

thai contemptible wretch 
mme 
n dishonest man 

M uv US 

bad appearance 

B \nt homme 



tin homme brave 

a brave man. 

une nouveUe certaixe 

sure news. 

un Tiabilkment cher 

an expensive dress. 

Wl DOME COMMUNE 
an indifferent voice. 
quel homrm cruel! 
what a cruel man ! 
phi; M HUE 

last year. 

•i F.Vl'SSE 

a false string. 
unjour faux 
an ill-painted light. 
un pottron BIER 
a proud coward. 
tffl lion FCRIEUX 
a falioilB lion. 

'.! V\T 

a man who is complaiaant to the 

nn honum QB \n» 

a tall man. 

: \M> 

a noble countenance 

I \ I T 

a loud tone 

vn homr, 

a polite man. 

\r. 
Sdpio the younger. 
ui, hommt M vi ni:ri:i BUS 

ate. 
un horn* • U vi BOBD 
polite man. 

i ran 
wicked appearance. 

m, homnu mi • ma nt 



ADJECTIVES. 



m 



a bad man 

une mechante epigramme 
a miserable epigram 
un miserable enfant 
an ill-natured child 

MORT-&0JS 

wood of little value, sucli as 

brooms, brambles, etc. 
morte eau 
the lowest tides 
une mortelle heure 
an excessively long hour 
un nouveau livre 
a new boot ; another book 
un pauvre auteur 
an author without merit 
pauvre petit ! 
poor child ! 
un plaisant homme 
a whimsical, ridiculous man 
un petit homme 
a small man 
les propres termes 
the same words 
propres mains 
own hands 

SATST-EspHt 

Holy Ghost 

femme sage 

a prudent woman 

un sexto enfant 

an only child 

un simple domestique 

a single servant 

un trtste homme 

a worthless man • 

unique tableau 

single painting 

un vilain homme 

an unpleasant man 



an ill-thinking man 

une epigramme mechante. 

a wicked epigram. 

un enfant miserable 

a destitute child. 

hois mort 

dead wood. 

eau morte 

standing water. 

cette vie mortelle 

this mortal life. 

un livre nouveau 

a book lately published. 

un auteur pauvre 

an author without fortune. 

un petit pauvre 

a little beggar. 

un homme plaisant 

an agreeable, merry man. 

un homme petit 

a mean man. 

les termes propres 

the proper words. 

mains propres 

clean hands. 

Esprit saint 

Spirit of God. 

sage femme 

a midwife. 

un enfant seul 

a child alone. 

un domestique simple 

a foolish servant. 

un homme triste 

a sad man. 

tableau unique 

unparalleled painting. 

un homme vilain 

a wicked man. 



62 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

itra yrai conte vu conte thai 

a mere story, a true story. 

When two adjectives quality one noun, they are generally 
placed after ii for the same reason which places long adjectives 
after short nouns. 

Ex. (Tent un voyage long ct fatigant, that is a long and 
fatiguing journey. 
Ces tableaux nobles <t imposants, these fine and imposing 
paintings. 
But if one or both of these adjectives belong to classes to 
which special rules assign a given place, these rules must be 
strictly observed. 

Ex. J'n'in" une grandi table ronde au salon, 1 like a large 
round table in the parlor. 

tout dit, this spoilt little child has 
told every thing, 

IShi ■ ' '"'. tlic Btory of a pool 

yOUDg man. 

It ha- already been Btated, in speaking of the use of the 
article, that if the tw.> adjectives ref< r to two different nouns, 
although but on-- may be mentioned, the article must bo 
repeal 10I1. 

Ex. L ■/,/", the first and the second 

me, 
l.i langw Tta ' <<< ux to ars, the 

Italian and Spanish languages are Bisters. 
//■ / ix, bappy, is perhaps the only adjective which, in inter* 
one, may \»- placed before article and noun. Otherwise 
it is only allowed t.> poetical license to place sometimes an ad- 
jective before the verb 

Ex Heureux Vkon me qui Bait endurhrf happy the man who 
know - lure I 

fi • //y touch* , sacred thej are 

■ m. 



ADJECTIVES. <o6 

Exercise. 
If the living frighten us, what have we to fear of the dead? The 
incomparable author of this great work was hardly known during Ids 
lifetime. Socrates, at the last hour of his life and surrounded by his 
friends and followers, showed that he was a true philosopher. These 
burglars used false keys in order to open all the doors of houses which 
had been left empty by their occupants. Tou shall not touch that 
beautiful, new book, if you have not clean hands ; it is too easily 
spoilt. A cruel man is an inhuman, miserable person, who loves to 
make others suffer or see them suffer. That good old soldier has 
been in all the wars of his country, and he still looks a strong, healthy 
man. I have not been much at home last year, but I promise you 
that that snail have been the last year in which I travel so far. Will 
you wear to-night your fine blue dress, or do you prefer the new 
green dress, which you bought recently ? That rich old miser will 
leave his immense wealth to a spendthrift nephew, who will spend it 
all in a few short years. She has bought a large, commodious house, 
where she will entertain all her young, gallant friends. His former 
glory had passed away, when he, the first man of the Republic, made 
himself ruler of his native State. 



COMPARATIVE DEGREES. 

Three Comparative Degrees are generally spoken of: The 
Positive, which is nothing more than the simple meaning of 
the adjective, without any comparison, and therefore not in 
reality a degree of comparison ; the Comparative in its three- 
fold nature as a comparative of superiority, of inferiority and 
of equality, and the Superlative, relative or absolute. 

The simple rules on the formation of the comparatives and 
superlatives have already been given in the First Part of this 
Grammar. It remains here only to add the rules on the use of 
the so-called irregular comparatives. 

Meilleur (from the Latin melior), better, is the only com- 
parative of bon, as plus bon is never used; mieux, is the com- 
parative of Men, instead of plus Men, which also cannot be used. 

Ex. Cest un meilleur resullat gu'on. rt avail expecie, that is 
a better result than had been expected. 



64: O* THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

MeiUeur enters also into the idiomatic expressions de bonne 
heure, early, and a Ion marcM, cheap. 

E x jy ire heure que nos wisins, we rise 

earlier than onr neighbors. 
II VaacJiete meBleur marcM que7ioiu,kc has bought it 
cheaper than we. 

Pin (from the Latin pejor), worse, is the comparative of 

mauvais, by the side of plus mauvais, -which is also used, but 

with this distinction, that pin is used to express something 

i thing, whilst plus mauvais suggests no such 

comparison. 

Ex. Sa condition est mauvaise, mats die a etc pin, bis con 
ditiori is bad, but it baa been worse. 
// rCest pas plus mkliant q es, lie is no worse 

than the others. 
af i • , (from •' ■ Latin minor), less, is the comparative of 
petit, small, and is ased, like pin, to compare two objects small 
in themselves, while plus petit is Bimply smaller than any object, 
however la I 1!1 itself. 

j.; x / ' moindn g & ■ is ^ llr 

r than this 
j£H . she was not smaller 

than I. 

- a comparative of Inferiority of 

thai wine thi 
ferior to the 

w irthe twop 

- La he any better this 
morali 



ADJECTIVES. 65 

Jai penr qu'il ne se porte pis memc qulder, I fear he is 

even worse than yesterday. 
11 m'aime moins que tous sesamis, he loves mc less than all 

his friends; 



Exercise. 

His reasoning is not "better than yonrs, hut his style is much clearer 
and more pleasing. In many cases the remedy is worse than the 
disease. Do you rise earlier in summer than in winter? No, we 
think it hetter to rise during the whole year at the same hour. I 
could have "bought these hooks cheaper, hut I did not wish to take 
advantage of his distress. Have you seen the Spanish dwarf? They 
say he is even smaller than Tom Thumb. This criminal was surely 
very wicked, hut I doubt whether he was worse than his brother, 
who was pardoned last year. That block of marble weighs a thousand 
pounds, and yet it is smaller than many others in the same building. 
Bad friends are worse than wise enemies ; we fear our enemies, but 
we are deceived by our friends. Shipwreck and death are less fatal 
to man than the sins he commits. I like him better, not because he 
is better than his brother, but because we have known each other so 
many years. 



Plus and moins, more and less, are frequently used, not to form 
comparative degrees, but as Adverbs of Quantity. Then they 
must 1 e followed, like the whole class of those words, by de and 
n t by que. 
Ex. Ce tableau cofite plus de cent dollars, that painting costs 
more than a hundred dollars. 
Cependant j'aurais pu I'acJieter pour moins de cinquante, 
yet I might have bought it for less than fifty. 

In comparisons of inequality, i. e., superiority and inferiority, 
the verb of the second term takes the negative particle ne 
before it, without however becoming negative itself. 

Ex. Elle est moins belle quelle detail il y a deux ans, she is 
less handsome than she was two years ago. 
II s'est montre meilleur general qiCon rCavait espere, re 
has shown himself a better general than was hoped for. 



C>6 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

With regard to the construction of the Relative Superlative, 
the following rules have to be observed : 

1 . If the second term of the comparison consists of a noun, 
tlie connection with the first term is made in French by tfe, in- 
stead of any other preposition, unless the latter be emphasized. 

Ex. C'cst rhomme le plus savant du pays, he is tlie most 
learned man in the country. Elle est toujour* la 
premiert <'< Fecole, she is always the first in her school. 
'il y a dt mu t'.r dans Paris ; il y en a d'autree 
dehors, this is the best to be bad inside of Paris ; there 
are others outside. 

2. If the Becond term contains a verb, this must be used in 
the form of the subjunctive. 

Ex. ' ' jrand navire qu'on ait jamais eonstruit^ this 

is the largest vessel that has ever been built 

»sf l> meillsur vin rjue runs puissiez me donmr! 
Which is the best wine you can give me? 
Attention must !"■ paid t<» the form of the article before die 
superlative, especially with regard to the following two points: 

1. 'I he definite article being the only mark of distinction 

aid tin 1 superlative, it can neither be 
omitted nor supplied by the indefinite article, as in English. 

nv ii /'/'is aimable, she is be- 
ll doubt the most lovely woman. 
1' i >i.r A .v plus sincsres, you will 

- have my best « ishes. 

■ d\ Pair U plus ajffectueux, she looked .-it 
me w ith a most affectionate look. 

2, The art irse, with tho adjective and its 
noun, but frequently U plus and <V moins are used adverbially 

ad then they remain unchanged. 
I .>. . ( '■ ' a /< no:" la ■ is the 

gaj est ladj 1 ki 



ADJECTIVES. 67 

Elle a I- air triste, meme quand elle est le plus gate, she 

looks sad even when she is most gay. 
Les arbres les plus hauts sont le 2?lus exposes a lafoudre, 

the highest trees are most exposed to lightning. 
Elle est le mieux mise quand elle est le moins paree, she 

is best dressed when she is least adorned. 



Exercise. 

They say she is the best singer in the world now, but I like her 
the least of all I have heard, although her voice is the most cultivated 
I know. That enigma has been given to the most learned men in 
the city, and they have not guessed it : it is the best I have ever read. 
I have noticed that, even when she is least attentive to what happens 
around her, nothing escapes her attention. The first cotton-press 
that was introduced in this country is not as old as the oldest man 
in the State. He said to me, with a most affected manner : I cannot 
imagine that he is a better tailor than mine ; when I tried him, I 
found him less skilful than I had hoped. She is much prettier than 
we had thought, but she is the worst educated young lady we have 
ever known. The best-established opinions are often overthrown in 
times of revolutions. Of all these musicians, she is the one who 
pleases me best, for she sings more correctly than the best singer I 
have ever heard sing; . 



Certain classes of adjectives have no degrees of comparison ; 
but as this arises simply from their signification and not from 
any peculiarity of form, no rules for their use are required. 
They are principally such as express an absolute quality, as 
eternel, eternal ; mortel, mortal ; divin, divine ; supreme, su- 
preme ; unique, and negative adjectives, as immortel, immor- 
tal ; impuni, unpunished ; immense, immeasurable, etc. Their 
meaning can never be made relative to others, as what is 
unique or immortal cannot possibly be more or less so, and this 
is the only reason why they are said to have no comparatives 
or superlatives. 



6^ ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

The Absolute Superlative, made by prefixing- an adverb 
expressive of ibe highest degree to the adjective, employs for 
that purpose most frequently tres, fort and bien, all three of 
which correspond to the English very, with this distinction : 

Tres expresses simply a generally admitted opinion, without 
nny special emphasis. 

Ex. Tres bien, vous pouvez vousen aller, very well, you may go 

une terre tres fertile, that is very rich soil. 
Fori is stronger in its effect, and is, alone, employed before 

iples past, when it expresses the English very mark. 

Ex. dtaii tin hommefort savant, he was a very learned man. 

V vous rc»r id, 1 am very much 

surprised to see you b 

i is used to express onr personal conviction, and repre- 

muc h indeed, or similar ex 

ble, madam, you are very 

kind indei 

„•, /,„„ /,„.,. nhlait de bontis, he used to 

1„. extremely civil and loaded me with kindn 

rj^ ( . when used without an ad- 

mply by beaua up ; trhs beaucoup, or any 

auCOUp is an ad- 

1 by another adv< rb. 
\ ./ ■ . him eery much. 

beaucoup, /'his que jt 
Why, very raach 
: than I thought. 

n French which make . 
lative by addii \ I •'' formed in imitation of the 

irdinal Kichelien made, 
by hi- own will and authority, when he wont to take command 
of the French army in Italy. The termination cornea, through 



ADJECTIVES. 69 

the Italian, from the Latin issimus, and is confined to adjectives 
used as titles. They are mainly the following ; Ulustrissime, 
most illustrious ; revirendissime, most reverend ; ezceUentisxime, 
most excellent ; eminentissime, most eminent, and serenissime, 
most serene (highness). Others, which have occasionally been 
formed after the same manner, belong exclusively to the familiar 
or comic style. 

Exercise. 

These two brothers were not very much esteemed in spite of their 
riches, since everybody knew how they gained their wealth. This 
wine is very good, but after all only an ordinary wine ; I like some- 
thing better. I told him that he had been very imprudent indeed, 
and that his best friends would show him less sympathy than they 
would have done if he had been more cautious. She was very much 
interested in the proceedings and watched them with a most attentive 
eye ; she was perhaps the best-informed person in the audience. I 
am extremely sorry, Madam, if I have said any thing that could give 
you a worse opinion of him ; he is the most excellent man in the 
world and the best friend 1 have upon earth. When the ambassador 
approached, the master of ceremonies said : Will your Serene High- 
ness permit me to present the minister of his majesty the king ? 
You are very polite indeed, gentlemen, and I am most sincerely 
obliged to you for all your kindness. 

REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 

Certain adjectives in French, as in English, do not have a 
complete meaning, unless a noun or a verb be added. The word 
^o added is called their regime, regimen, and is always connected 
ith the adjective by a preposition. 

Ex. Cest une arme peu propre a la guerre, that is a weapon 
hardly fit for war. 
La charrue est V instrument le plus utile a fhomme, the 

plough is the most useful instrument for man. 
Cet empereur rfHait pas diyne de regner, that emperor 
was not worthy to reign. 



70 



ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 



Other adjectives have no regimen, their signification being 
complete in itself, as intrepide, vertueux, virtuous, inviolable^ 
brave, sage, etc. 

Still others may be used with or without a regimen, accord- 
ing to the meaning which they have in the sentence. 

Ex. Un duine vieillard s'approcha dc nous, a worthy old man 
came near us. 
C'est une fault dipne de la plus severe punition, that 
fault deserves the severest punishment. 
The following adjectives use different prepositions for their 
connection with the regimen, from the English. In all other 
cases the same prepositions are used in both langnag 



II 869 enfant*, 

I 

I de '•'• crime, 

< 

\ 

■ 

I' >i di 

/ 

i - maun, 

Ineonei 

I 



Skilful in profiting. 
Approaching to truth. 
Good to his children. 

MIS. 

Civil to all. 

Accomplice in tliis crime. 

Carious I 

Who <. learn. 

[gnoranl 

Unacquainted with intrigna, 

Obvioos to oa. 

Sorry for the accident 

prini lpl< s. 
Baperior in pli 
Well ■ -'TV. 

< "ra/.y 

at to arrive, 
[ncompatible with onr mannen 

I 

• tOSB, 

Indulgent to his children. 



one of affidra. 
in. children. 

[nBenaiblc /■- ahaine, 
Tntoltnt i.\ iiis lather. 



ADJECTIVES. 71 

Intercast a voire succes, Interested in your success. 

Occupe a ecrire, Busy writing. 

Parent du roi, Related to the king. 

Paresseux d' ecrire, Lazy in, -writing. 

P<?& avec or en vers les dames, Polite to the ladies. 

Proprea, la guerre, Fit for war. 

2?.7ri" de wms voir, Overjoyed to see you. 

Peconnaissant de bos Pontes, Grateful for your kindness. 

RedevaMe de w£re education, Indebted /<??' your education. 

Sensible a, «0S bontes, Sensible of your kindness. 

Bourd a ma botsj, Heedless o/my voice. 

Surpris de Za nouvelle, Surprised at the news. 

Tributaire du grand seigneur, Tributary £<? the grand seigneur. 

Victime d'un prejuge, Victim to a prejudice. 

Some adjectives are connected by de, when they follow the 
verb etre, preceded by a personal pronoun, and by a, when etre 
has ce for its subject. 

Ex. II est beau de mourir pour la patrie, it is beautiful to die 
for one's country. 
Cest beau a, voir, that is pretty to look at. 
II est doux dejouir de la solitude, it is pleasant to enjoy 

solitude. 
Cela est doux au toucher, that is soft to the touch. 

Facile, followed by a verb preceded by a, gives to the infinitive 
a passive signification. 
La fortereefe ne sera pas si facile dreduire, the fortress will not 

be so easily reduced. 
G' est facile elf aire, that is easily done. 

The same difference is made by some adjectives according 
as they are followed by a noun, when they take a, or a verb, 
when they take de. 

Ex. 77 est bon de manger du fruit le matin, it is good to eat 
fruit in the morning. 
Ce fruit n 'est pas bon a manger, that fruit is not good to 
eat. 



72 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

// est utile de ihabituerau travail, it is useful to get ac- 
customed to work. 
Xous aimons ceux qui soat utiles a (curs con/rent, we like 
those who are useful to their brethren. 
If a noun should be governed by two adjectives, which 
require different [.repositions, the construction of the sentence 
must be so changed as to prevent any incorrectness. Beqoo*- 
, for instance, requires a before things and envers before 
-; hence it cannot be ^\id — 
g x< [ hit a la Pr << Dieu, but, 

Vous ties respomable a la Pi ers Dieu^ you 

1 and to Providence. 






v.-ry Impatient to Bee us, for they were inconsolable for 

th, i r loss, ana hoped that we would come and, indulgent to their 

, m in ti,,.,, | : an ready to avenge him- 

most 

I it themselves. Although my 

bersj he is 

of mind, but be hi iabl ° : " r " r - 

1 thus he of 

. 

n free from 

Pram h 

from that which is used in English. The differei ism 

the : 
In Ei 

after it. 



ADJECTIVES. 73 

In French two modes of construction may be employed : 

1. The adjective of measure is placed first, and connected by 
the preposition de with the measure itself. 

Ex. Une tour haute de deux cents pieds, a tower two hundred 
feet high. 

2. The more elegant construction, however, is to use the verb 
avoir instead of the English to be, followed by the measure, 
and then to use either the adjective of measure or the cor- 
responding noun. 

Ex. Une tour qui a cent pieds de hauteur, a tower which is 
a hundred feet high. 
Cette riviere a quatre-vingt mitres de largeur, this river 

is eighty metres wide. 
Les murs d' Alger avaient douze pieds d' 'epaisseur, the 
walls of Algiers were twelve feet thick. 

In speaking of age the word age is left out, when the verb 
avoir is thus substituted for to be. but not with other verbs. 
Ex. Cette petite fille n'a que six ans, this little girl is only six 
years old. 
Elle mourutdl'dge de soixante-dix, she died at the age of 
seventy. 

When two measures are . mentioned in connection, the 
English preposition by or the conjunction and, are both trans- 
lated by sur. 

Ex. Cette chambre a vingt pieds de largeur sur trente de 
longueur, this room is twenty feet wide by thirty feet 
long. 
Les murs n'ont que trois pieds <T epaisseur sur douze de 
haut, the walls are only three feet thick and twelve 
feet high. 
When two objects are compared by means of measurement 
of any kind, the English preposition by is translated by de. 
Ex. Elle est plus grande de sa sceur de toute la tete, she is 
taller than her sister by a whole head. 



74. OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

H est plus age que safemme de dit ans, he is older than 
his wife by ten years. 

The preposition in before noons of measure, is also rendered 
in French by de. 
Ex. 11 a troispieds de diametre, it is three feet in diameter. 



Exercise. 



How many men mil you have to dig the foundations of a 
house, the walls of which are four feet thick '? I have a ditch in my 
garden, to drain it, which is seven feet wide, three feet deep, ami a 
hundred and twenty let t long. She was only seventeen years of ago 
when she was married, and she died when Bhe was sixty-one years 
old. That table does not suit me, it is round and has two feet and a 
half in diameter, but it is n< arly three feet high, and that is too high 
by half a t'<xit. This poor prisoner was confined in a cell, lour feet 
wide by siz Gael long; the walls were four feet thick, and the little 

window, which pierced them, gave very little light. The Amazon 
is in that place twenty miles wide, though it is wider than the 
Ganges 1 y 



ADJECTIVES OF MMHKK. 

The Cardinal tfumbert are bo called from the Lathi woid 

ipreea, as it were, that upon them depend, 

as the door hangs on its binges, all other numerals. This is 
the aame idea which baa led to the naming of Cardinala in the 
church, of the cardinal points in geography, and the cardinal 
virtues : prudence, joati I temperance. These nnme- 

inswei t<» the qn < n. y a-t-ilt bow many an 

The tbey Lpvc the 

order «>r rank whi-jh persona and things hold among them- 

from the Cardinal 

Numbers an 1 express, a uuiuher collectively. Such aro ilix- 



ADJECTIVES. 75 

aine, half a score ; douzaine, dozen ; vingtaine, score ; ccntaine, a 
hundred. 

Distributive Numerals express a portion of a whole, such as 
un demi, a half; un tiers, a third ; un quart, a fourth. 

Proportional Numerals express the multiplication of the 
cardinals, le double, le triple, le quadruple ; le centuple, a hun- 
dred-fold.* 

With regard to the use -which is made of these different 
classes of numerals, the following rules are to be observed : 

The Cardinal Numbers are used in definitions of time some- 
what differently from the English, as will be seen in these 
points : 

1. The date of the year is invariably given in cardinal num- 
bers preceded by en, or, more formally, en Van, in the year, 
writing a thousand mil (not mille), and using no conjunction. 

Ex. Nous sommes en Van mil huit cent soixante-sept, we are 
in the year 1867. 
II mourut en dix-sept cent quatre-vingt-seize, he died in 1 796. 

2. The date of the month is given in cardinal numbers, ex- 
cept the first, which is always le premier, and the second, which 
may be le second, though le deux is more frequent. The pre- 
position on is never translated. 

Ex. Nous reviendrons le onze de ce mois, we shall return on 
the eleventh of this month. 
Le vingt-cinq du mois prochain i.l y aura une tempete, on 
the twenty-fifth of next month there will be a storm. 
The preposition of before the names of months is generally 
omitted. 

Ex. II naquit le treize Avril, il y a trente ans, he was born on 
the thirteenth of April, thirty years ago. 
La. bataille fut livree le trois Mars, the battle w r as foughf 
on the third of March. 



70 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

3. The hour of the dciyh given in cardinal numbers, accord- 
ing to the nature of the question: Quelle heure esl-il ? what 
time is it \ 

Ex. II est une hcure, it is one o'clock. 

Nous y in runs a train hemes, we shall be there at three 
o'clock. 
The fractions of an hour are simply placed after the numeral ; 
the expressions : a quarter to or before half-past two, etc., 
being unknown to the French. 

Ex. // arrioa ici a deux /nuns ct demie, he got here at half- 
past two o'clock. 
No "' m i 'i owe Inures tt quart, we shall finish at a 

quarter pasl eleven. 
II est lent keures trois quarts a ma montre, it is a quarter 
to nine by my watch. 

rnps qu'ilfttutest huit //< arcs cinguante-cinq [in inn Its), 
the required time is five minutes to nine. 
Tw in the daytime is not douzi heures, but midi, 

and twi ..; night is minuit. 

1a. ht it midi ei i< minuit, the great 

bell is rung at noon and at midnight. 
On y dine it ini'/i ou a midi tt demie, they dine there at 
or at balf pasl tw< 

The day, mornin ag are expressed by jour, matin 

mi'l .-(•>-. when the th . counted, and by journit, 

. • .. iradou is to be expressed. The 
. ■ 
Ex. 1 t, I e cams every 

morning al six o'cl( <lv. 

promener, I have spent the 
morning In walking. 

Oil p 

Whi re wil ning : To u 

BtlO : 

. I have 

aim <>uly twico daring tho whole \<.ar. 



ADJECTIVES. 77 

To-night, when it means this evening, and last night in the 
same sense, are translated by ee soir and Mar soir, the noun mat 
being used only for the night proper. The evening or the night 
before is rendered by la veille, as the morning or the day fol- 
ing, by la landemain. 
Ex. Je I'ai vu amnt Mer soir et je la raverrai ce soir, I saw 
him night before last, and I shall see him again to- 
night. 
11 dormit et la veilh et la lendemain de la oatailla, he 
slept both on the day before and the day after the 
battle. 

4. The names of Sovereigns are accompanied by the cardinal 
numbers without article, except Premier and Second, but these 
also have no article. 

Ex. George Trois succeda a George Second, George III. suc- 
ceeded George II. 
Louis Onze et Louis Quatorze ont fait beaucoup pour la 
France, Louis XI. and Louis XIV. have done much 
for France. 
The great Emperor Charles V. and the famous Pope Sixtus V. 
are both quoted as Charles Quint and Sixte Quint. 

When cardinal and ordinal numbers are coupled together, the 
former must precede the latter. 

Ex. Les deux premiers jours de ce mois, the first two days of 

this month. 
If cardinal numbers follow the verb etre, they may be placed 
immediately after it, when the noun belonging to the cardinal 
may be easily supplied ; if this is not the case, the words au 
nombre de, to the number of, must be added. 

Ex. Nous etions cinq au depart ; nous sommes deux, we were 
five of us on starting ; we are two of us. 
Les fautes sont trop nombreuses ; elles sont au nombre de 
vingt, there are too many mistakes; they are twenty. 
Both, when immediately followed by a noun, is translated by 
les deux. 



78 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. tPai achele les deux volumes a lafois, I have bought both 
volumes at the same time. 
Voulez-vous les deux chiens ou settlement un? Do you want 
both dogs or only one? 
But if both is not followed by any noun, it is translated by 
tous deux, when both are represented as acting together, and by 
tons Us deux, when acting separately. 

Ex. lis sortirent tous deux, they both went out (together.) 
lis stmt sortis tuus les deux, both have left (one after 
another.) 



This great general died on the nineteenth of August, and was buried 
•with much haste on 'l" - twenty first : his obsequies were noi cele- 
brated until the thirteenth of the next month. The physician 
had left him apparently in good health at half-past eleven o'clock at 
night, and at a quarter to ii\<- on the next morning he was found dead. 
The unfortunate Look the Bixteenth was led to the scaffold on the 
twenty-first of June, one thousand seven hundred and ninety-three. 

She was Beventy Bt when 1 saw her, and Bll6 had walked 

the. whole morning In her garden. Whal time was it when vou saw 
her? It was last nighl at half-past eight. Charles the Fifth and 
the supreme power in Europe ; it is 
difficult to tell which enjoyed the most, l was absent on the fourth 
of July, "r i not return until late at night ; we had ■ nlea 

little supper, and s few minutes after midnight we all retired. The 
Oral three volumes of this work are far superior to the others, and I 
think tweir appeared. There were twenty of us In that 

cluh. I survived; wears rarely foor of us at table, 



When the noun to which the cardinal number refers is not 
d i ", the numeral must be 

il ./ - n « ".' cent de ' 
of ti\e hundred combatants there were one hundred 
killed. 



ADJECTIVES. 79 

Cetaient ses gravures et il iCy en avait que deux de bonnes, 
they were his engravings, and there were only two 
good ones among them. 
Bat if the noun itself is given after the numeral, de is not 
added. 

Ex. II y eut cent hommes tues et deux cent blesses, one hundred 

men were killed and two hundred wounded. 
The Ordinal Numbers are used in English in all cases where 
the difference has not already been stated, and where their 
place is not supplied by the cardinal numbers. 

It will be remembered that the ordinal numbers are always 
placed before their nouns, except wheu volume, chapter or page 
of a book and the like are quoted. 

Ex. tFai recu le troisieme tome, qui vient de paraitre, I have 
received the third volume, which has just been pub- 
lished. 
Vous le trouverez, Livre troisieme, chapitre premier, you 
will find it, Book third, Chapter first. 
It must not be forgotten that le premier and le dernier are con- 
sidered as superlatives, and hence have the same effect upon 
the construction of the sentence as that class of words. Thus 
they require the verb to appear in the subjunctive mood. 

Ex. (Test la derniere gravure qvHil ait faite, this is the last 
engraving he has made. 
Je suis le premier qui soit venu, I am the first who has 
come. 
The Collective Nouns are the following : 



Unite, 
couple, 


unit, 
couple. 


quinzaine, 


( about fifteen, a fort- 
( night. 


trio, 
demi-douzaine. 


trio, three. 
, half a dozen. 


vingtaine, 


( a score, about twen 
1 ty. 


huitaine, 


a week. . 


trentaine. 


{ a seore and a half 


neumine 


nine days of prayer 


( about thirty. 


dizaine, 
douzaine, 


half a score, 
dozen. 


quarantaine, 


(two score, about 
( forty. 



80 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 



(two score and a _. ( one thousand, about 

cinquantainc, ] , .. , . ... vn m&her, - 

( naif, about nitv. ( one thousand. 



soixantaine, 
un cent 
contains, 



t three score, about myriade, one myriad. 

( sixty. million, one million. 

(one hundred, pre- milliard, or) one thousand mil- 

( cisely. billion, ) lions. 

( one hundred, about trillion, trillion. 

{ one hundred. 



Except in commercial transactions, these words do not 
represent the precise number they express, but only a number 
nearly approaching to it. Thus une vinytaine may be a few 
more or less than twenty. As they are nouns, they require the 
preposition dc to connect them with other nouns. 

Ex. II n',i vendu une douzaine cTarufs, be has sold me a 
dozen 
Ccla ■( une dizains de tnille dollars, that will 

cost you abont $10,000. 
Le cn,t ilc paille que vou* me fournites, the hundred- 
bt of straw you furnished me. 

; used to designate the :ige of 
..Miit any other word. 

ixantaine, tins old man is over 

six!; 

The Distribute Number* are la moitie, le tiers, Is quart^u* 
rinquihne, and the ordinal numbers as in English, 

Ex. /- plus grand* <j>ir la moitii, two-thirds 

are more than one-half. 

On I u " ■'"■■■> - le* quatre ci i profit, they have 

'. him four-tilths of the profit. 

Le ir . the thn e hundredth (,,',„>. 

troi* CCnti&mes, three- hundredths (-j-j,,). 

It must be borne in mind that moitic, half, is a noun and 
inbject to the rules on nouns. 



ADJECTIVES. 81 

Ex. II a pris la plus grosse moitie, he has taken the largest 
half. 
La moitie ne suffirait pus, half of it would not be 
enough. 

While demi is an adjective, which is always used with a noun, 
whether that noun be expressed or understood. 

Ex. Je lui donne une demi-gourde le jour, I give him half a 
dollar a day. 
Trois heures et demie (heure) s'etaient ecoulees, three and 
a half hours had passed. 



Exercise. 
Did you not find that sentence in Bacon's Works, Book fifth, Chap- 
ter second, page one hundred and first ? It was the thirty-second 
year after that glorious peace when war broke out again, and inun- 
dated all Europe with blood. Sixtus the Fifth lived at the same time 
as Henry the Fourth ; both were very famous men, but in very dif- 
ferent ways. I have seen both brothers ; the likeness is indeed so 
great that one can well take the one for the other. There were only 
three-hundred, but in spite of their inferiority, they resisted the 
enemy for several hours ; they only gave way when they had two 
hundred killed and about fifty wounded. Has he passed sixty years, 
or does he look older than he really is ? Nine-tenths of those who 
have heard it will not know the purport of his speech. It lasted 
three-quarters of an hour, and half was filled with statistics which 
interested nobody. I w T as there half an hour before him, when there 
were only about twenty persons in the hall ; later in the evening, 
there were perhaps a hundred. I have bought two hundred-weight 
of straw for my cows ; they cost me already more than ninety-three 
dollars, and this morning the servant told me that they had both run 
away. He obtained her father's consent on the tenth of July, and he 
became her husband before a fortnight had passed away. The wed- 
ding took place at night in the church, and after that they spent 
about twenty days at a friend's house in the country. 



82 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

CHAPTER IV. 
PRONOUNS. 

I. — PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronoun.?, the forms of which have been given in 
the Fir.-t Part of this Grammar, have their name from their 
original purpose, that of supplying the place of names of per- 
sons, in order to avoid their frequent repetition. Although 
this is still their principal duty, their use is by no means con- 
fined to persons, and they represent not only lifeless objects, as 
Ex. Quant a la maisonje la trouve detestable, as to the house, 
I think it detestable, 
but even whole Bentenees : 

Ex. // m me salue jamais, et mot je ne Vaperfois jamais, he 
never Bpeaka to me, and I never notice it (that he does 
not Bpeak i ; 
in which cases the Bentence is not nnfrequently represented in a 
different construction. 

Ex. VouUz-vous que faille vous voir i Oui, je le veux (que 
\ <>ii w Mi me i" go and Bee yon I 
S -. 1 wish it (that yon conn and see me). 

Personal IV. nns differ : 

1. A- tar as th< \ three persons, the first, or the 
d who is Bpeaking, jV, I. nous, «<■; the second, or the 

person spoken t«-. tu, ti . ; and ibe third, or the person 

tpok< be, she and it; ils,elles, thoj ; on, some one, etc. 

ie first and second persons are always in sight of each 
other, then sing their gondcr ; it is dif- 

I with the third person, which is absent, and hence the 
pronoun representing it forma for the gondera, 

2. A- bras they are • onlj to I"' used in 
immediate connection with a verb like je, me, tu, te, le, lui, or 



PRONOUNS. 83 

absolute, i. e., only to be used by themselves, without a verb, or 
united to a preposition, like viol, toi, eux, etc. 

Some pronouns are conjunctive and absolute without change 
of form — Jike elle, she ; nous, we ; vous, you ; elles, they. 

Ex. Elle (conj.) a assez, la maison est d elle (abs.), she has 
enough, the house belongs to her. 
Saoegrwus (conj.) qu'il l'a fait pour vous (abs.), do you know 

that he did it for you ? 
Quant d dies (abs.) dies (conj.), n'ensavent Hen, as for them, 
they know nothing of it. 

3. As far as they represent the subject (nominative) of a 
verb, like je, tu, il and elle, or the direct object (accusative), 
like me, te, le and la, or the indirect object (genitive and dative), 
like en, y, lui, leu?; etc. 

Some pronouns serve for all three purposes : 
Nous and vous mean we and you, nom. 
" " us and you, ace. 

to us and to you, dat. 
Ex. Nous (nom.) nous (ace.) aimons et vous (nom.) vous (ace.) 
flattez, we love ourselves and you flatter yourselves. 
Nous vous (dat.) donnerons ce que vous nous (dat.) donneres, 
we will give you what you will give us. 

Me, te, and se mean me, thee, one's self (ace.) 

" " to me, to thee, to one's self (dat.) 

Ex. II me dit d moi ce qu'il te dit d toi, he told me what he told 
thee. 
II me Jiait car U te prefere, toi, he hates me for he prefers 

thee. 
On se (ace.) trompe toujour s quand on se (dat.) plait trop, 
one always deceives one's self, when one is too well 
pleased with one's self. 



84 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

I.— CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS SUBJECTS. 

(Nominative.) 

Je, not written, as in English, with a capital initial, when it 

does not begin a sentence, suffers elision when immediately 

preceding a verb, beginning with a vowel or mute h, and has 

the gender of the person it represents. 

Ex. Je stiissatisfaitc, dit la reine, de vos services, I am satisfied, 
said the queen, with your services. 

"When placed in interrogative sentences, after a verb which 
ends in mute c, it compels the verb to place an acute accent on 
this e to avoid two mute <'s following each other. 

Ex. VeiU ■ an pareil dessein $ Am I awake! 

Can I believe Bach a plan I 

DussS-je en mourir, je Vessaieraiy even if I were to die 

of it, T will try it. 

When the mi1» in the present is monosyllabic, it is not used 

interrogatively with/*, hut the question is asked by means of 

est-re q 

Ex. E don on csi-cc que jc veillet Am I asleep 

or am I awake / 

Tu, also, i^ of Loth genders aeronling to the person it rep- 
resent^. 

Br. 7 r, par mi let /emmet, thou art blessed, 

Madonna, among women. 

The use of to— which is expressed by the verb tvUn/er 
guelqu'un, to thou a person — is not a> rare as in English, but 
still limited. 7 i — 

In addressing God : 

Ex. Grand Dieuf i enl# eont remplis rPiquite\ Giant 

God! thy judgments are full of joe 



PRONOUNS. 85 

In elevated and poetical style : 

Ex. Grand roi, cease de vaincre ou je cesse d'ecrire, great king, 

cease conquering, or I must cease writing. 
In addressing very intimate friends, and, generally, members 

of the same family : 
Ex. Mon ami, je ie supplie, ne fais pas cela, my friend, I pray 
thee, don't do that. 
Tiens, mon enfant, que fais-tu la ? Why, child, what are 
you doing there? 

To address inferior persons, servants, etc., by tu, is no 
longer usage. Except in remote provinces, it lias been aban- 
doned since the Revolution of 1848. 

In expressing contempt or intentional insult : 

Ex. Connais-tu Vheritier du plus saint des monarques, reine ? 

Dost thou know the heir of the holiest of monarchs, 

queen ? 

II and elle, derived, like the definite article, from the Latin 
demonstrative pronoun Me, ilia, represent the three pronouns 
he, she and it, as the French has no neuter. // also represents 
the it which is the vague subject of impersonal verbs. 

Ex. 11 chante, il danse, il s'amuse ious les jours, he sings, he 
dances, he amuses himself every day. 
Ce tableau me plait, il est original, I like this painting ; 

it is original. 
Cette table est trop petite, elle ne me convient pas, this table 

is too small, it does not suit me. 
H neige, ou il va neiger tout-a-Vheure, it snows, or is going 
to snow directly. 

Nous, we, from the Latin nos, is used for both genders and 
for both numbers, according as it represents a masculine or 
feminine noun, and as it is used in the plural, or by a figure of 
speech, for the singular, as is done by sovereigns, editors, etc. 



86 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. Nbussommes Unites preserves, dirent-elks, we are all here, 
they said. 
Nous, George Premier, par la grace de Dieu, etc., we, 
George the First, by the grace of God, etc. 
Yous, von, from the Latin row, is in like manner used for 
both genders and numbers, as it is now-a-days the only pronoun 
employed in addi K>ns. 

Ex. Votts ties savant, Monsit ur, rout savez tout, you are learned, 
Sir, you know every thing. 
Vous vous trompez, Messieurs, on ne passe pas! You are 

mistaken, Gentlemen, you cannot pass here! 
Pert j Vites, vous devez lefaire,M you 

• •!i\ inced, yon ought to do it. 

Both of these pton and w> w, arc rarely plaeed 

directly before a noun expressive of character, Btation, or 
■;. oality. In such cases the wor inse r ted be- 

tu. .n and the noun. 

■ 
soldiers do not mind it. 

1 ■. von ]>liil<> 

- know that better. 
jg re, we 

• v. t arrived there. 

Its and rf/< . from the Latin Uli and dice, represent the I 
tiah they in s 

i; v /. m soniils retiris dejhf Have tho doctors 

i y sont seuleS) Bpeak to the ladies, 

they are alone there. 

j-,,, ■ ■'■ . 1 like those ; 

the] i< 'it. 

0/»,from the . which is a I as a subject, 

will be mentioned under the head of indefinite pronouns to which 

it belong-, being the indefinite persona] pronoun of the French. 



PEOKOUNS. 87 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS DIRECT OBJECT. 

(Accusative.) 
Me is the accusative of je, and elides like the latter before a 
verb beginning with a vowel or mute h. 

Ex. // me plaint car il m'aime, he pities me, for he loves me. 

Bajazei aujourdhui rrChonore et me caresse, Bajazet now 

honors and caresses me. 

After the imperative, me is always exchanged for moi, unless 

it should be followed by en or y, when it resumes its original 

form. 

Ex. II me hue ; louez-moi (not me) done aussi vous, he praises 
me ; do you praise me also. 
Suivez-ni'y (not moi), s'il vous plait, follow me there, if 
you please. 

Te is the accusative of tu, and used like me. 

Ex. Tu te trompes, mon ami, il est tard, thou art mistaken, 

friend, it is late. 
Te, also, has to be exchanged for tei after the imperative, 
and like me, resumes its original form before en. It is not used 
before y. 

Ex. Tais-toi ! (not te) tu fais un fracas enorme, hush ! thou 
makest a terrible noise. 
Va-t-en (not toi), coquin, que je ne fassomme pas! Be 
off, rascal, or I shall kill thee ! 

Le is the accusative of il, and represents the English him 
or it. 

Ex. (fest Dieu qui me Va donne, mon mari cheri, it is God who 

has given him to me, my beloved husband. 

Ce livre ? Je le tiens de mon ancien precepteur, this book ? 

I received it from my former teacher. 

Le is the pronoun which is added to all active verbs in order 

to comply with the rule, that every active verb in French 



88 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

must have its object expressed, which is not the case in 
English. 

Ex. Is this your house ? Yes, it is. Est-ce la votre dcmcure ? 
Oui, ce Pest. 
Will" you do me this favor .' No, I cannot. Voulez-vous 

me /aire cette fuveur ? /< m le peux pas. 
Did they do it yesterday ' Yes, they did. Est-ee quits 
runt fait hier? Oai, Us Font fait. 

Le answers also for the English so, when it can be exchanged 
for it and does not mean thus, in this manner. 

Ex. I thought BO, but I did nut i iko to say so, jt le pen mis, 
r in voulais pas U 
It appears bo, and perhaps it is so, il paralt et pevt-Urs 
il i , 

La is the accusative of eltt and represents the English her 
or if. 

Ex. r Ha la dam* : jt la ' eke, there is the lady; 

I Bee her coming. 

/.'/.' / • /• a ■■ ii it rend heureux, the Km- 

peror loves Prance, he makes it (her) bappy. 
Je it vote, ii ii .1 see it, the house o( 

my fill 

It is not a'v. . to decide when the object 

of ai i i" English and t<< be supplied in 

translated ; or la <>r lea. 

rale is. that when the object is an adjective, A alone is 
supplied; when it is a noun, that form of the pronoun is sup- 
plied which corresponds with the noun in gen ler and number. 
Ex. E ■■ ! iladt ). Is he sick . ; z*ea, 

/ aeant) t 

since he says we are exacting, let us b 



PRONOUNS- 89 

Voire soeur sera-t-elle votre heritidre ? Oui, die la sera 
{fheriliere). Will your sister be yuur heir? Yes, 
she will. 
Sont-ce la vos robes? Non, ce ne les son I pas (les robes'). 
Are those your dresses ? N o, they are not. 
Hence the difference between 

Etes-vous mariee ? Oui, je le suis (adjective). Are you 

married ? Yes, I am. 
Etes-vous la mariee ? Oui, je la suis (noun). Are you 
the bride ? Yes, I am. 

Even the (English) auxiliary verbs are active verbs in 
French and require the addition of their direct object, like 
other verbs of this class. 

Ex. Je sais que je le dois, I know I ought. 

Je le pourrais, s'il lefaut, I could if I must 

11 (Lit qu'U le veut t He says he will. 

Je vous le dlrai, I will tell you. 

Nous, unchanged, is used as accusative of the nominative 



Ex. Nous (nom.) nous apercevons qu'on nous (ace.) trompe, we 
are aware that we are deceived. 

Vous, unchanged, is accusative also of vous. 
Ex. Vous (nom.) etes riche, je vous (ace.) en felicite, you are 
rich, I congratulate you. 

Les is the common accusative of Us or elles, and represents 
the English them in all three genders. 

Ex. Voyez-vous ces hommes ? Je les crains. Do you see those 
men ? I am afraid of them. 
.Les malheurs disparaissent quand on les brave, misfor- 
tunes vanish if we face them. 



90 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Exercise. 

It hails and snows very hard and it is not possible to go out. Come 
in and stand by the stove, it is warm and comfortable. I offer you 
my hand, and I hope you will not refuse it. Help me and I will help 
you, but after all it is with God to help us both. You ought to take 
exercise every day, your health demands it. I know I ought, and 
the doctor says so too, but I cannot force myself to do it. Will you 
come to-ni ght and take tea with us '? Yes, I will, with pleasure, if I may 
bring my sister also Certainly you may, and we shall be very happy 
to see her. Be silent, and go away, you are in a passion and know not 
what you say. He is not asleep. Yes, be is, and lie will be for an 
hour, if nobody awakes him. Well, young ladies, are you ready at 
last ! Yes. we an', and altogether at your service. Since you say so, 
let 08 go and take our walk. She was not veiy amusing to-day, per- 

ahe will !«• more so to-morrow, when there will be more company 
nt our house. I- your master at Lome v No, sir, be is not ; be has 
left for Europe two days ago. 1 thoughl bo, and would have come 
sooner, but 1 had not time, and now I am boity for it. 



\- INDIRECT OBJKOT. 

dative a- well a- accusative, like the English nt«, and 
for " moi. 

I ; in-!,' t,.us !,s ma I i us, ho 

rj morning. 

On n<- taurail me reproch tf aimer la tables 

ach me with a fondness for the table. 

it cannot 1» omitted 1 ad verb, if it should 

ut differ nt objects with the tv.<> verbs. 

cannot be said, bat 
ich r*s0 In- repeated with the auxiliary veil, ; 

d charmed me. 
itive, i- changed into mot, after tho 
imperative, m 



PRONOUNS. 91 

Ex. Donnez-moi (a moi) deux, give me two. 
Donnez-irten deux, give me two of theui. 
Suivez-m , y, follow me there. 

Te, in like manner, is dative as well as accusative of tu, and 
means to thee and thee. 

Ex. Tais-toi, pendard, hush (thyself), scoundrel. 

Prends-fen tant que tu voudras, take as much of it as 
thou wantest. 

(Such a sentence as this would not be used in French, on 
account of it3 unpleasant sound — it is added simply as an 
illustration and a warning with regard to the laws of 
euphony.) 

Lui is the dative of il and elle, and corresponds to the Eng- 
lish to him, to her, and to it, standing, as it does, for a lui and 
a elle. 

Ex. Je lui parlais franchement, I spoke frankly to him. 

On lui a rendu son mari, they have restored her husband 

to her. 
Quand le vaisseau fut lance on lui mit les mats, when 
the vessel was launched, they put the masts in (to) it. 
If, however, two pronouns representing persons should be 
connected with the same verb, lui cannot be used for to him or 
to her, but its place must be supplied by a lui and a elle. 
Ex. He compares me to him, il me compare a lui. 

Shall I introduce you to her ? Dois-je vous presenter a 

elle? 
He gave himself entirely up to her, il s'adonna entiere- 
ment a elle. 

Y (from the Latin ibi) is also a conjunctive personal pro- 
noun, representing as such mainly the indirect object of il or 
elle, when applied to things. It can be applied to persons only 
in connection with the two verbs, penser, to think, and se fier, 
to trust. 



02 ON THE PAKTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. Pensez-vous a votre bien-aimee? Oai, fy pense. jour et 
nuit. Do you think of }-our lady-love \ Yes, I think 
of her day and night. 
Ne vous y fiez pas, elle a des caprices, do not rely on her, 
she is fickle. 
A lui and a elle can, however, be used equally well with 
these verbs. 

Applied to things, y means to it or to them. 
Ex. Ajoulez-y un j>cu desucre, s'il vous plait, add a little sugar 
to it, if you pleas 
II j\t at y donner toute votre attention, you ought to give 
your whole attention to it. 

toni graves, fuites-y attention, these are grave 
- pay attention to them. 

and rous are used as datives as well as accusatives, 
and their precise meaning can be ascertained only from the 
position in th 

■ lat.) fait des compliments, 
they praise and compliment 

( ,•/,,_- toujour* a runs [dat.) /aire des amis, 

you always try to win (make) friends (for yourselves), 

dative of the nominative Us and elles, and repre- 
i them in all gendi 

mis, on li ur don) ok at inv 

children, they are receiving presi 

avail parli, my dangh* 
old me that they had Bpoken t" them about it. 
)■ . i as a substitute for d tux and a elles, under the 
condition, under which it can !><• used for <i lui and •< 

Those 
■ is, do not trust them ! 



PBONOUNS. 93 

Exercise. 
Give liim all that you Lave and I will give you all I have Who 
was it that spoke to her this morning ? I saw nobody who spoke to 
her, but I sent a friend to her, who told her that the carriage was 
waiting for her. Tell her all of it, or, if you cannot do that, tell me 
all of it and I will tell her. Go away, thou art too bad ; and be silent 
about it or thou wilt be punished severely. He confided in them and they 
deceived him. Add to it a measure of sugar and it will be very good 
to eat. If you had given to it more attention, you would have suc- 
ceeded better. What has he told you ? He told me that they would 
go away to-morrow, in order to spend a year in Paris, and that he 
would go there himself next year. I have heard that news, but I have 
given no credit to it, because he has told me so twice and he has not 
yet gone there. That was the residence of Voltaire : think of it, when 
you are on the banks of the lake of Geneva. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS INDIRECT OBJECT. 

(Genitive.) 

There is but one conjunctive personal pronoun, which repre- 
sents the genitive case, and that is en (from the Latin inde), 
which is used as a genitive of all the pronouns of the third 
person, singular and plural, and hence represents : of him, of 
her, of it, of them, from him, etc., about him, etc. 

Ex. Voila monfrere, je lui en dirai quelque chose, here is my 
brother, I will tell him something about it. 
Si vous avez du the, donnez in'en une tasse, if you have 

any tea, give me a cup of it. 
II avail dix enfants, mais il en a perdu six, he had ten 
children, but he has lost six of them. 
Like the pronoun y, en also requires the imperative of verbs, 
which ends in mute e, to add an s in order to avoid the hiatus. 
Ex. Parles-en a ion fere quand il ventre, speak of it to thy 
father when he comes in. 
Sois sage, mon enfant, et donnes-en un a ta sosur, be good, 
my child, and give one of them to thy sister. 



9i ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

It will be remsmbered that en, like y, has also the effect of 
changing moi and toi after the imperative into me and te. 
Ex. Ditea-m'en tout ce que vous en saccz, tell me all you know 
about it. 
Tais4'cn aiec tout le monde, be silent about with everybody. 

En is generally used with reference to persons only when 
they have been mentioned either in the same sentence, or at 
least in the one immediately preceding it. 

Ex. Vou» avez vu man ami, qu'en pensez-vous ? You have 
seen my friend, what do yon think of him ? 
Que dit-tlle de moit Elle >t\a dit que J 'u bien. "What 
did she say of me ? She said nothing but what was 
good of you. 

B - immediate purposes for which <» is used as a 

pi reona] pronoun, it Berves to express various other words, 
which have a kindred meaning in English. Of these the fol- 
lowing are the most important : 

J.'n is used foi . when these words are employed 

a» pronouns, and consequently not accompanied by any noun; 
the manner of expression being that the French say, e.g,, (live 
theml instead of the English, Give me Bomel 

Ex. /' i give me some, it' 

\ oil lia\ 6 ] 

./- /,'</( at pa$. What a pHyl I have 
not any. 

/; ( .r ; . ■ :i trit petit nombre. Friends! I 

hav< ew. 

in such constructions 1"' qualified by an adjective, it 
requires, like all pronouns, the addition of the preposition di. 
Ex, I 1 ave somjl very g I, but they are quite dear, /en at 

Xhi that are better, 

M-d iout bom , fen <" iu de meillev 



PRONOUNS. 95 

En is also used to express the English words one and ones, 
when they are added to adjectives instead of a noun. 
Ex. This apple is bad, give me a good one, celle pomme est 
mauvai$e,donnez-m' l en une bonne. 
Have you no better ones ? I do not like these. iV'cn 
avez-vous pas de meilleures ? Je n'aime pas celles-ci. 
This can, of course, only apply to adjectives which are 
objects of the verb, as it has already been stated that en can 
never refer to the subject, the nominative. If one and ones are 
used with the subject, they remain untranslated in French. 
Ex. A good one would cost twice as mueh, un bon couterait 
deux fois plus. 
Good ones are very rare at this season, les bans sont 
fort rares a cette saison. 
En is used instead of the English it, whenever it becomes the 
object of a verb which in French is followed by the preposition 
de. 

Ex. I will use it, if you will lend it to me,je nCen servirai, si 

vous voulez me le prefer. 
JEh is supplied in French to express the whole, of which a 
quantity, a number, or any measure forms the direct object of a 
verb in English, without mentioning the whole. 

Ex. How many books have you ? I have two thousand 
(books). Combien de livres avez-vous? J y en ai deux 
mAlle. 
I gave him half (of my money) and I kept the other 

half, je lui en donna.i la moitie et je gardai V autre. 
I thought you had given him more, je croyais que vous 
lui en o.vicz donne plus. 
Unless this quantity, measure, etc., is preceded by the definite 
article or possessive pronoun, in which case it is clearly enough 
defined and does not require the addition of en. 

Ex. I gave him half and kept the best part, je lui en donnai 
la moitie et je gardai la meilleure parlie. 



96 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Take six and leave me my share, prenez-en SIX ( t laisses- 
moi ma part. 
En is omitted in French, even when of it or of them are used 
in English, whenever the latter words refer to the indirect object 
of the verb, accompanied by a preposition. 

Ex. I met several ladies and I spoke to two of them, fai 
rencontre plusieurs dames et fai parle a </< u.r. 
lie was employed for all and only plead for one, il etait 
Una it H n'a plaidoye que pour un. 
Finally, it must be borne in mind that en cannot be used for 
. oftfu ra, etc., or for »< me or «/<//, if these words 
are n aied by verbs, as ,>, is a conjunctive personal 

pronoun, ai ntly can be used only in immediate con- 

nection with a verb. In such cases, the French either repeat 
the verb, <"• substitute (Pentre (from amongst) for e». 

Ex. How many did yoo Bee! Two of them. Combien en 
./'. n at i u <l< ■/./-, or deux of\ ntr 

only four. I 
IX cuillers. ai j>ris 

que quatre. 



I 



I tomes thai thi* young man will l friend, for von aro 

alwaji \ him. I like these men, and I say of then what 

your friend told yon ' ■ I number of them, if you p] 

mil food ha her, she will make a better use 

I urn Bony, 1 have 
not any, but I win l il" not like thai ■■ 

have trii -l :i smnll quantity an<l it is d m me some I 

Tlie sampl. ! tea la the dty ; n-.w I ban 

any, krat I shall I y t li. • ivxt i 

Bow many brothen h d »i ono 

« now. Will y>>u 

• 'II. if Vnll |.. 

but If I tin 1 . >-'ut of 



PKONOUNS. 97 

a hundred men that buy lottery tickets, one wins a prize and ninety- 
nine lose their money. I want a knife, and I want a large one, for I 
have lost all the small ones I have ever bought. You have not treated 
me fairly, you sold me an old one for a new one. 



PLACE OP CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

a. As Subject. 
The elementary rules on the place of personal pronouns have 
already been given, and it has been seen that, as nominatives of 
the verb, they precede it, except in the interrogative form, when 
they are placed, as in English, after the verb. 

Ex. Je Vai salue, pourquoi ne me salue-t-il pas ? I have bowed 

to him, why does he not bow to me ? 
It has also been stated that if in questions the subject be a 
noun, it must be placed at the head of the sentence, and then 
repeated after the verb in the form of the corresponding pro- 
noun. 

Ex. U Empereur est-il parti pour Fontainebleau ? Has the 
Emperor left for Fontainebleau ? 
Les hommes ne seront-ils jamais plus sages qu'a present, 
"Will men never be any wiser than they are now ? 
To these general rules must now be added the following, 
which refer to more particular constructions : 

In English a condition may be expressed by simply giving 
to the verb the interrogative form, and instead of saying : If he 
had been here, this would not have happened, we may say : 
Had he only been here, this would not have happened. In 
general, such constructions are not admissible in French aiW 
must be rendered by employing si, if. 

Ex. Should you go there now, it would be too late, sivous y 

alliez maintenant, il serait trop tard. 
But in cases in which great emphasis is laid upon the con- 
dition, as when we say or can say even if, the French employ 



98 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

the interrogative form of the whole of the subjunctive of the 
verbs avoir, etre and devoir, and the third person singular of the 
same tense and mood of all verbs, like the English, for the same 
purpose. 

Ex. Dmse-je en mourir,je le ferais neanmoins, even if I were 
to die of it, I would do it nevertheless. 
Fut-il plus riche que Cresus, il ne serait pas heiorur, 
even if he were richer than Croesus, he would not be 
happy. 
J$ussent-ils eu six cents canons, Us vc Faitniieni pas 
tmporti, even if they had had six hundred guns, they 
would not have gained the battle. 
Donnat-il lout xon bien anx pauvres, il ne gagnerait pas le 
cat, even it" he were to give all he has to the poor, ho 
would Dot enter into heaven. 
Personal pronouns are, also, generally placed after the verb, 

when for the sake of emphasis one of the following adverbs 

is placed at the beginning of the Bentencc : a peii <, scarcely ; en 

join, in vain; at) memo, at least; encore, yet; toujours, still; 

peut-itre, perhaps, and several others, expressing a conclusion. 

Ex. -1 /■ ■ fuUU into', ijn'il Sclata en injures, hardly had 

he OOme in, when he broke forth in insults. 

ours sera-t-U suspect a tous ceux qui /'<</'/ connu % 

still lie will be Bnspectod by all who have known him. 
l'i'i - mieux fuit di vous taire, perhaps 

you had done better to keep rilei 

It mnal not \«- overlooked that the pronoun i* thai planed utter 

the verb only when the above-mentioned adverbs ure planed, 

me particular purpose and always with a more or Lees [dio 

mask meaning, at the head of the sentence, instead of their 

legitimate plane after tin- verb. 

In incidental sentences personal pronouns are invariably 

planed after the verb. 

Kx. Eh lmit, i/it-il, fiinssn/i.s-ai, well, he said, let us make an 

end of it. 



PRONOUNS. 99 

Exercise. 

I have seen it often enough, and I do not care to see it again. Was 
this man ever one of your friends, or did he merely claim your friend- 
ship to protect himself in his crimes ? Were he here now, he could 
not be admitted, because the general is too much engaged to see any 
one ; but should you see him in an hour or sooner, you may send him 
to me and I will tell him when he can succeed. Even if he were the 
President of the United States, he would have no right to prohibit 
this. Should I lose my all, I will venture upon this enterprise and 
carry it through, even if it were the last tiling I shall do upon earth. 
Nothing in this world, he repeated twice, will induce me to act thus, 
I value my honor more than all the riches of the earth. 



b. As Object. 
Personal Pronouns which are direct or indirect objects of a 
verb are placed immediately before it, except in the affirmative 
imperative, when they are placed after it and connected with 
it by a hyphen. This rule has already been stated and ex- 
plained in the First Part of this Grammar. There remains, 
however, to be considered the case in which two such pronouns 
are connected with the same verb. Their place is, in that case, 
entirely prescribed by rules : 

If the two pronouns represent different persons, the first per- 
son precedes the second, and the second the third. 

Ex. He told it to me before he told it to you, il me le dit 
avant qu'il vous le dit. 
I gave them to you yesterday at the Exchange, je vous 

les ai donnes hier a la Bourse. 
You owe them to me and you shall pay them to me, 
Vous me les devez et vous me les payerez. 
If the two pronouns represent the same person, which can, 
of course, occur only with the third person, the direct object 
precedes the indirect. 

Ex. He sejit them to her and she sent them back to him, il 
lesJAii envoya et elle les lui renvoya. 



100 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

He took the purse and gave it to them, with these 
words, il prii la bourse et la leur donna avec ccs mots. 

If the two pronouns are placed after the imperative, tliat of 
the third person is invariably placed first, for the sake of euphony, 
and both are joined by hyphens to the verb. If they should 
both be of the third person, here also the direct object precedes 
the indirect. 

Ex. Give it to me at once or I must take it, donnez-le-moi de 

suite ou je devrai It prendre. 
Send him to us and we will take care of him, envoye&i*- 

nous et nous nous < /, thargermu. 
Show it t<> him and then give it back to them, montrez- 

h-l'ii it ", -leur, 

Kit and y will be found, in Accordance with these rules, 
alwavs nearest to the verb, when before it, and farthest from it. 
after the imperati • 

Ex. // aurmt da AMtff auhtnt, ho OUghl to have 

TOO |fl many. 

;'<nl iju'tl vudru, give him as much as 

he ^' 

tOlU lex jours ! I »o J I 

him there every 

Coh . .rry us 

there and we will be obliged to you. 

It linn already been mentioned thai for the sake of euphony y 
la placed before m (and ////<</, Invite me to it ; but 

\.r_\ ran- occurrence ami ought t<> be avoided 
bv I 



; 



When li" taw thai I mar, he said to mo : I cannot trust 

vc.u. a nd me a native. When he bed res I the i"H.u, he gave it to ma 
wih tin ! Jd return it to him to-morrow or I 



PRONOUNS. 101 

day. Did you see that beautiful rose ? I gathered it this morning in 
my garden : I presented it to her politely at breakfast ; she took 
the leaves of it and placed them into a vase, where she collects a large 
quantity of rose-leaves, in order to make a perfume of them. Send 
her to him, he will know what she can do to it. If you have your 
books here, take this pretty one, add it to them, and they will appear 
twice as handsome as before. What did he tell you about it ? He 
told me no more of it than he had told you, but he promised that he 
would carry me there and show it to me himself. Take the dol- 
lar and give it to them, and then take this letter and send it to her ; 
she will read it at once. When you have looked at all the engravings, 
return them to her, and tell her that I wish to see them also, if she 
can lend them to me for some time. Sell me a hundred of them and 
I will give you a good price. 



REPETITION OF CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns must be repeated before every verb, to 
which they serve as an object. This rule has no exception 
with regard to the pronouns of the first and second person. 
Ex. I saw and recognized her before you did^'e la vis etje la 
reconnus avuni. vous. 
I will study and learn it by heart to-night, je vais I'etudier 
ct Vapprendre par coeur ce soir. 

The pronouns of the third person, however, may be used 
but once, instead of being repeated, when the two verbs which 
they qualify are of the same nature. 

Ex. II vint et dit, he came and said. 

Je la vis et saluai, I saw and saluted her. 

But if the two verbs have different objects, or one is affirma- 
tive and the other negative, or if they are separated by incidental 
sentences, the pronouns of the third person also must be 



Ex. Elle voidut et elle ne voulut pus, she would and she would 
not. 



102 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Je Vai rencontre et je lui ai parle, I Lave met him and 

spoken to him. 
II la cassu quandfetais absent, et il ne Fa pas fait raccom- 

moder, he broke it when I was away, and has not had 

it mended. 

If the two verbs thus used with the same pronouns are in 
the imperative mood, the usage is to repeat the pronoun, but 
to place it before, instead of after, the second verb. 

Ex. Tcnez ee Kvre ; lisez-U et le relisez, take this book ; read 
and re-read it. 
Nettoyezrlei et Uspolissez tantgue vous pourrez, clean and 
polish them as well as yon can. 



Exi RCT8K. 



T Uke tliis young lady as well as yon, but I think yon flatter and 
plains her too much. He Bpoke to me for half an hour, and did not 
say a single word which I had not heard before, sin- wenl ami oama 
bank ten times; at last sin- mads an efibrl and really went away. 
Speak to him or write to him on the Bubject ; be will give you 1 1 • • - beat 
and accompany il with a sum of money. I will give you yon* 

- letter; read it and r.-. iad it. it is full of g 1 advice, and 

yon ought to study and follow it luring your whole life Sin- saw it 
but she did not recognize it, and yet it was her own child, I tld«>k 
of it and remember it every day when I come t" your house — how I 
loved and cherished it ! 



pi k-..\ ll proko era si - 

■ arts of the body of the 
person Bpeaking or spoken of and to, are not rendered in 
bv the corresponding words, bnt their place is supplied by 
the article before the ntnn, and the indirect object of the proper 
persona] prononn before the verb. Instead of 

mal ; the French sa_\ : '1 i. 
aches to him, la ttU lui fait mal. 



PRONOUNS. 103 

Ex. I washed my facp, je me laved le visage. 
I will break his head, ye lui casserai la tete. 
She has cut her finger, elle s'est blesse au doigi. 

The verb, to beg pardon, is in French used after the same man- 
ner, substituting the personal for the possessive pronoun. 
Ex. I beg your pardon, je vous demande pardon. 

With passive verbs, the nominative of which is a person, 
the pronoun is superfluous, as there can arise no ambiguity in 
such a case. 

Ex. I was wounded in my shoulder, jefus blesse a Vepaule. 

The general rule of thus substituting one class of pronouns 
for another is, however, set aside whenever there could either 
an ambiguity arise as to the person whose parts are spoken of, 
or when special emphasis is resting on the possessive pronoun. 
In these cases the latter is translated literally. 

Ex. Push your feet (not anybody else's), pousxez vos pieds. 
Show me your teeth, montrez-moi vos dents. 
Having wept so much, their eyes were red, ayant tant 
pleure, leurs yeux etaient rouges. 

On the other hand, the article alone suffices to represent the 
possessive pronoun, without the addition of a personal pronoun, 
when we speak of an action natural to the part of the body 
referred to, and when there can be no ambiguity. 

Ex. I opened my mouth, fouvris la bouche 
Shut your eyes, fermez les yeux. 

If the noun expressing a part of the body, be accompanied 
by an adjective, the possessive pronoun must be used. 

Ex. Give me your beautiful hand, donnez-moi votre belle 
main. 
What has become of her bright eyes ? ses yeux brillanls 

que sont-ils devenus ? 
It must be borne in mind here, that in French the singular of 



104 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

nouns expressing a part of the body is used, instead of the Eng- 
lish plurals, when each person has but one such part. 
Ex. They all lost their ]ive8,&8 perctirmt torn la vie. 

The savages cut off their noses and ears, les sau cages 
leur coupa-i it le net et les oreilles. 



Exercise. 



You pull my hair too severely in combing it; take care, or my head 
will ache for several hours. He was wounded lightly in the arm, 
hut he lost his leg. Go into the chamber ami wash your hands and 
bee. When the robbers had entered his room, they tied his arms and 
bandaged b - bat he could neither Bee nor hear. She said 

Bhe felt a alight pain in hex IV m 1 1 . perhaps she has sprained it. Please 
J ears, I cannot endure that dreadful noise. Show me your 

teeth, the di d I will tell yon if it is necessary to draw 

them. I opened my month, bat he insisted that he could not ace my 
teeth yet. Ih ■ will certainly not i nnish you this time, if you go at 
once to him and beg his pardon. i*«> not put your feet on the cushion; 
your boots are not dean, and you will soil the cover. He raised his 
to heaven and his unbounded astonishment. In his 

iii'-t duel hewas vronnded in the shoulder and his adversary Lost his 
left h-^ ; both combatants lost their lives during the war. He cannot 
s; < .ik. of it. En as Boon as he mentions it, the ;• ars come Into his ty as. 



II" w lO Ti: vs- . ffOB. 

The personal prODOUD ' either a noun or a whole 

sentence <>r a part of In the first ease it is transla- 

ted by < der of the noun which it 

represents; in the latter case, before Hre, by cs. An additional 
teel to know when e ibstitnted for *7, is to see if the 

English tf can be supplied by that, in which case it is invariably 
r« adored bj 

Ex. Try this beer, it is excellent, goblet cettt biere, tile «*• 

i urct 11, i, U . 



PKONOUNS. 105 

Try it again ; it is better already, essay ez de nouveau ; 

c'est micux dejit. 
Tell me seriously, is it (that) really so ? Dites-moi serieu- 

se??ie?it, est-c'e vraiment ainsi ? 
It has been the same each time he has come, pV. ete la 
menie chose chaquefois qu'il est venu. 
Ce is not used before an adjective followed by de. 
Ex. It is useless to go there now, il (not c'est) est inutile d?y 
aller maintenant. 
Nor in the familiar exclamation : est-il possible ? But in all 
definitions of time with etre, ce will be required, as in such 
expressions that can always be substituted for it. 

Ex. It was in June when I saw him last, c'etait en Jain 
que je Vai vu la dernier e fois. 
Was it yesterday that he came to your house ? Est-ce 
que ce fu,t hier qu'il est venu chez vous? 
Ce may be separated from the verb etre in these cases, when 
the two verbs pouvoir and devoir are connected with it. 

Ex. It cannot be he, for I have seen him myself, ce ne peut 
pas Ure lui, car je Vai vu moi-mkme. 
It must be a queer thing, ce doit etre une drole de 
chose. 
Another peculiarity in this use of ce for it, is that it is fol- 
lowed by the plural of the verb, when connected with nouns or 
personal pronouns of the third person, whilst with all other 
persons it remains singular. 

Ex. It is they who ought to be blamed for it, ce sont eux 
qiCon doit blamer. 
It was you who told me so, c'etait vous qui me Vavez 

dit. 
Is it your children or mine whom he wants to see ? Sonl- 
ce vos enfants ou les miens qiCil veut voir ? 
It must not be forgotten, in this connection, that it may not 



106 ON THE PAKTS OF A SENTENCE. 

only be the subject (nominative) but also the direct object 
(accusative) of the verb, in which case it has to be translated 
by le. 

Ex. Ride out, your health requires it, sortez a cheval, voire 
sante le demande. 
Don't do so, you know the master prohibits it, ne le 

failes pas, vous savez que le muitre le defend. 
Do you think this is it ? Croytz-vous que ce Vest ? 

Exercise, 

When I hoard it first. I thought it wns not true, but the papers say 
that it is surely so, and I fear that it cannot be doubted any longer. It 
is difficult to understand their reasons for these measures, but it was so 
last J ■ ar. and I [immillll it is so in all great crises. He offered me his 
credit in t'nut eity. and 1 knew thnt it was not small, but 1 madu no 
use of it, because [had money enough. It is we whom they blame, 

and yet yon know very well that it is they Who are the cause of all 
these misfortunes, fa it really you, my dear friend, whom I have not- 
seen for so many yeara ': It was not difficult to guess what would lie 
theCOD I bis manner of living', for it was clear that he 

spent twice as much as he t4«>k in. You are mistaken, Sir. it cannot 

be sh.- irhom you saw, for she was at my house at thai hour, and slm 

fa there now. [1 was balf-pasl ten when 1 saw her, and 1 am sure it 

was bin'. It baa been so in all revolutions: success is the only test i>y 
which rights are ded led It was s very cunning trick, and it will not 
•• . even hereafter, V Ksotly how it was dons Is it 

have committed such a blunder, and 
you speak of it as If it were a mere trifle i Do yon not know that it 
will be a cans i of great loss and much regret to you and your family i 



OVAI run mi v, wiru mitkii VERBS, 

.-ire some neuter verbs iii French followed by the 
preposition ". the meaning of which is such as not to i 

with their object; hence the conjunctive form of the 
personal pronouns cannot be used with them, but they require 



PBONOUNS. 1<»7 

the preposition a to be expressed, and the proper form of the 
(absolute) personal pronoun to be used after them. These 
verbs are principally aller a, to go to ; boire a, to drink to ; ttre 
a, to belong to ; penser a, to think of (and other verbs express- 
ing thoughts, like mediter a, etc.) ; recourir a, to have recourse 
to, and viser a, to aim at. 

Ex. I went to him and told him what I wanted, fallai a 
lui etje lui dis ce quHl me fullait. 
Think of me when you are in Venice, pensez a moi 

quand vous serez a Venise. 
This belongs to him, for he has bought it, c'est a lui, 
car il Va achete. 



REFLEXIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The conjunctive reflexive pronoun of the French is se, which 

represents all English forms of the third person, himself, herself, 

itself, themselves and one's self, without translating the word 

self, which is only used when there is an emphasis resting on it. 

Ex. She deceives herself if she thinks so, elle se trompe, si 

die le pense. 

They love themselves too well and others too little, Us 

Raiment trop et les autres trop peu. 
He has killed himself in a moment of rage, il s'est tue 
dans un moment de rage. 
Se is the only pronoun which can be used to represent the 
nominative on, in the oblique cases. 

Ex. On se trouve en danger quand on y pense le moins, we 
find ourselves in danger, when we least think of it. 
It has already been stated in the First Part of this Grammar that 
this conjunctive pronoun se is used with all pronominal verbs in 
French alike, but that it is differently translated into English 
according to the special nature of these verbs, viz. in reflexivo 
verbs by one's self, in reciprocal verbs by each other, and in pro- 
nominal verbs proper not at all. 



108 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. On peut Hre savant et se t romper neanmotns, one may- 
be learned and yet be mistaken. 

lis allaient se titer tout de bon, they were about to kill each 
other in good earnest. 

II faitdra se lever de bonne heure domain, we will have to rise 
early to-morrow. 



II.— ABSOLUTE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal pronouns are called absolute, when they have no 
connection with the verb, but stand either entirely alone or are 
dependent on a preposition. 

Ex. Who is there I It is T, who come to sec you, gut est 
l,i f (Teat 1 - vous voir. 

Be, who had been my friend, abandoned mo, fat, qui 

.■"ii ami, m'aband* 
(in with them, they will show you the way, allez avee 
mx, \U voni vous »/ mtrer la r>>>ite. 
In these examples, / and he arc used without connection 
with any verb, and them depends on the preposition with. 
The forms of the absolute personal pronouns arc : 
l-t person, singular : mot, I or me. 
2d " " tot, thou or thee. 

( fat, he "i- him. 
. she or her. 
1st person, plural : m M, we or us. 
2d M " " '■• you. 

. or them. 
. th. j (!'■ in.) or thru). 

Although tl nsed in connection 

with a verb, they may be added to th.' conjunctive form — 
l-t. In order to express i m\ 
Ex. I, I saw it. and I assure you it Is bo, moi,je Vai m it je 



PRONOUNS. 109 

I do not see hi m, whom I wished most to see, je ne le 
vols pus lui, que je desirais voir le 'plus. 

2. Tii order to express distinction between several persons. 
Ex. He was here, but she was absent, lui, il fat ici mais 

elle, ellefut absente. 
I have seen him and her, but they have forgotten me,je 
les ai vus, lui et elle, mais Us m'ont oublie. 

3. In order to couple a pronoun with a noun, both being 
subject or object of the same verb. 

Ex. I know them and their neighbor, je les connais, eux et 
leur voisin. 
She and her brother live together, elle et son frere 

Us demeurent ensemble. 
You and I who were there know it well, vous et moi qui 
etions la, nous le savons Men. 
It will be seen from these examples, that whenever pronouns 
are the subject or object of a verb, the conjunctive form must be 
used in the first place — and can never be omitted — and the 
absolute form is only superadded afterwards for such specific 
purposes as have been mentioned. 

Ex. // nous invita vous et moi, he invited (us), you and me. 
Je vous parlai a vous et a elle, I spoke (to you), to you 

and to her. 
Nous les recevrons lui et sa femme, we will receive 
(them), him and his wife. 



Exercise. 



x, whose reputation he tries to ruin, I have never done him any- 
thing but good services. You and I are content with our fate, hut 1 
believe that is a rare exception. Speak for me, if you can find an 
opportuni ty, and I will speak for you whenever I can. He went away 
with them and he came back with them, but he did not think of them 
after they had parted. These ladies and I were together at the theatre 
last night ; they like the opera, but I, I was tired and nearly fell asleep. 



110 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

You an 1 jour brother will see that I was right when I told you that 
you ventured too much. I know him and her, for I have known their 
whole family since I have been in this country ; he is a nice fellow, but 
6he is a shrew. We had invited her and her sisters, but only she an I 
one of her brothers came, the others were sick. You may tall him 
this secret to-morrow, but you cannot tell her any thing of it until the 
affair is over. Did she not receive you and her very well, when she 
discovered who you were V Yes, she was very kind to me, and so were 
her parents, and I thanked both her and them. 



The absolute forms of the personal pronouns are, moreover, 
used whenever they are followed by a relative pronoun, because 
the latter separates the personal pronoun from its verb, and 
permits it thus no longer to be conjunctive. 

Ex. ifoi, qui suit snu fi/s.jr U declare coupuble, I, who am 
his son, 1 declare him guilty. 
Qucstcc que c'ett •/'/<■ In 'i'ii nous traite si indianement f 

Who i- be, who treats us so badly ? 
JBuz qui nut net/ calculi, devraienl payer, they who 
have calculated wrong ought to pay. 
The absolute forms are, also, used whenever the pronoun is 
separated from tin- rerb bj a noun <>r an adjective, because 
then also to be trulj conjunctive. 

I..v .'■/ ■ .• 'I mourut, 1 alone saw him as 

be died. 
J. in, L him., pouvait-il a'oublier ri triatemenl} lie, the 
hero, Badly I 

forms are, finally, placed by ellip>is Ixfore the 
infinitivi at emphasis i" the 

expression. 

Ex. J/w, trahir U tmiet 1 (should) betray 

the hot of 1 1 1 \ li 

Lnt, fain um t>il> lacketi ti n malt IT: 

(could) act ao meanly and conduct himself SO bally < 



PRONOUNS. 11 L 



EXER( 



She who takes such good care of lier health when she is well, is 
very imprudent when she is the least indisposed. I know him and 
her, both have been my. friends for many years ; he is almost a brother 
*o me, and she will be my wife next week. They should have forgot- 
ten so far all that we have done for them, and repay us with such 
ingratitude ? I cannot and will not believe it, for they have ever been 
my best friends. He who is your brother would not lend you this 
small sum, and I whom you have hardly known am willing to give 
you all you may want. It is she who is always complaining of her 
health and not he, for he is never sick ; and both he and she will live 
yet many years. Yes, I shall punish him and no one else, for he alone 
is guilty ; and the others who were caught with him,were not his 
accomplices but his victims. He was on horseback and I was on foot, 
nevertheless I was first at the rendezvous, and when the seconds came 
we saw that it was they who had given him false directions. 



THE PRONOUN SOI. 

Soi is the absolute form of the reflexive pronoun, which, from 
the nature of its meaning, can never occur by itself, but is only- 
used in connection with prepositions or the. conjunction que, 
where it has, of course, all the various meanings that have been 
mentioned in the explanation of the conjunctive form se. 

Ex. On pense tovjours plus a soi qu'a autrui, we always 
think more of ourselves than of others. 
II est facile d'etre riche quand on n'a que soi, it is easy 

to be rich when one has only one's self. 
Heureux qui vit chez soi ! Happy he who has a home 1 
Generally the use of soi is avoided, except after on, and lui or 
elle are used instead ; still, in cases in which an ambiguity 
might arise, soi must be employed to mark the person of the 
subject in contradistinction to that of a third person spoken of. 
Ex. II ne parle que de soi, or better, que de lui-mime, ho 
only speaks of himself. 
ISavare qui a un fils prodigue rCamasse ni pour soi m 



113 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

pour lui. The miser who has a prodigal son, hoards 
neither for himself nor for hiin. 
When aoi is joined to meme, it loses its pronominal character 
and may be used like a noun. 

Ex. Un lei ami est tin autre soi-mdmc. Such .a friend is 
another self [alter ego.) 
Ou man amour me trumpe ou Zaire aujourJltui pour 
Velever a sot, descendrait jusqu'a lui. If my passion 
does not deceive me, Zaire would now, in order to 
raise him up to herself, lower herself to him. 
Soi is also very generally used in reference to lifeLss objects. 
Ex. J. limablt < n sot, virtue is attractive ,n itself. 

La/ranchim est bonne de soi, mats elle a ses »rcc«, frank- 
3C is goou in itself, but it may ^o too lai 






When one speake - neighbor, hi rinst himself. 

think i"" muchol - and rely too much mi them* 

hence tiny are n i red himself 

with disgrace, and ashamed when he thinks of himself. 

He n he can do without the 

In order to •■•• nauBt >e in ■ 

with God, with our n ighb m and w These things uro 

importance. 
•tain meanness, which it is nol 
.il from un observant eye. This young man. v-hile doing 
the «ill of his lather, works tot himself. 

It will be reooUeeted that thi and Un take 

the pit 

: key should I ■ 

truth. 
Iti ' •• 

hare said too much already. 

*. me *~ mud' 
as you 



PRONOUNS. 113 

Moi, however, is placed after y, contrary to general rules, fur 
the sake of euphony. 

Ex. Tu vas d I'opera, menes-y-moi, you are going to the opera, 

take me with you. 
In familiar language moi is sometimes added to the imperative, 
as a mere expletive, to give, as it were, greater force to tha 
expression 
Ex. Faites-moi taire cesgens-ld! Make those people keep silence 
there ! 
Frappez-le moi un peu sur le dos, strike him a little on the 
back. 



IT.— POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
Possessive Pronouns have their name from the fact that they 
generally qualify nouns by means of their relation to the owner 
or possessor. It will be seen, however, that in French this 
original purpose is by no means accomplished by the use ot 
possessive pronouns, except in a few limited cases. 

These pronouns are, like all others, divided into conjunctive, 
or such as are invariably used in close connection with a noun, 
and absolute, or such as stand instead of a noun and are conse- 
quently always accompanied by an article. 

The elementary rules on the use of both classes have already 
been given in the First Part of this Grammar. It will be borne 
in mind that the conjunctive agree with the noun which they 
qualify, while the absolute agree with the noun which they 
represent. 

Ex. Gette homme parla a sa mere et a la mienne, this man 
spoke to his mother and to mine. 
C'etait sa fille et point la votre, this was his daughter and 

not yours. 
S'il prend ma bague, je prendrai la sienne, if he takes my 
ring, I'll take his. 
Possession is in French expressed, not by means of the pos- 
sessive pronouns as in English, but by meuns of the verb etre, 



114 ON THE PARIS OF A SENTENCE. 

in the signification of, to belong, followed by a and the absolute 
form of the personal pronoun. 

Ex. This house is mine, but it will be yours, cette maison est a 
moi, mais elle sera a vous. 
"Whose watch was it ? It was hers. Cette montre a qui 
fut-elle? Elle etait a elle. 
The only exception to this rule applies to the cases in which 
possessive pronouns are used, not to express possession itself, 
but rather distinction between two objects by means of pos- 
session. 

Ex. N't pitnes pus ce chapeau, c'est le mien, do not take that 
hat, that is mine. 
Lagvelle a-t-il perdue, la vdtre ou la leur ? Which has 
he lost, yours 01 theirs I 



E!xxb< 

This Is my brother's sentiment and mini 1 ; I hope yours is not dif- 
ferent from oura I have returned you your books, what have you 
The booh which 1 lost yesterday was not mine 
l.ui my wife's; sip loss bitterly. Here are all the jewels 

you have ever given nn-: now Bay, which are to be yours and which 
mine? Your servants and ours are frequently quarrelling j we shall 
•n all, or there will l»' no peace for you or me, This 
if you wish to see mine you musl go to the stable, 
■ vi it!i y, ii. but I Bhould like to Bee youra, they aro 
famous in the whole town. Whose cottage is this ? My dear friendi 
mine, bul UMnorrow it may be yours, for I mean to leave 
it to you uft. r my death. Why, my friend, do uol speak so, tor your 
life may be longer than mine, She Bhall noi have then bracelets; L 
. ■ hex mine, but I «iil never give her tl 



In English, ronouna may be placed, by moans of 

the prep in which thtfy qualify, and the 

latter can, in - ompanied by an indefinite article 

or ■ demonstrative pronoun, as in — A friend of mine, ur These 



PRONOUNS. . 115 

books of his. Both modes of expression are not known to the 
French, and when they have to be translated, a choice must be 
made between the demonstrative and the possessive pronouns, 
as only one can be used. The less important will be omitted, 
and we will say either : These books, or His books. For A 
friend of mine, we say, One of my friends. 
Ex. Un de mes amis, a friend of mine. 

Ces livres or vos livres, those books of yours. 

Take these pictures of mine and sell them at auction, 

prenez ces tableaux et vendez-les a Vencan. 
Was that a friend of yours ? Est-ce que c'etait un de vos 
amis ? 

The possessive pronouns its and theirs, when referring to life- 
less objects, are not translated by le sien, etc., but by en, unless 
the objects are personified by having some quality or action 
applied to them. 

Ex. Voyez cet arbre ; les fruits en sont excellents, look at this 
tree ; its fruit is excellent. 
Est-ce que man cheval a deja mange sonavoine ? Has my 
hor^e eaten its oats already ? 

The possessive pronouns are not used before nouns followed 
by a relative pronoun, but are exchanged, in that case, for the 
definite article. 

Ex. J'ai recu la (not votre) lettre que vous m'avez ecrite, I 
have received your letter which you have written me. 
Tenez les (not vos) promesses que vous m'avez faites, keep 
your promises which you have made me. 

Le mien, le tien, and occasionally le sici, are used to express 
ray, thy, his or her property, and treated as nouns. 

Ex. Le mien et le tien, sont la source de toutes les querelles, 
what is mine and what is thine, this is the source of 
all troubles. 
II a mange tout le sien, he has spent all his property. 



116 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Les miens, les vdtres and all the plurals are used to express 
tuy parents, friends, adherents, etc., and treated as nouns. 

Ex. Les miens ne ni'ont pas secouru dans ce danger, my friends 
have not stood by me in this danger. 
II faut amener Mmc. voire epouse et tous les vdtres, you 
must bring your wife and all your family. 



Exercise. 



A clerk of his has defrauded him largely and brought about his 
failure by his dishonesty. Was this man ever a friend of yours, or did 
he only pretend to be acquainted withyou? I am surprised at your 
: a man like him never could be a friend of mine. These 
: ■ and very fast, but they are not 
sound, they will not live long, especially if you do not change that 
groom of yours, who treats them badly. A neighbor of yours heard 
the noise the b 8 in breaking the kitchen window, and 

: this aid of his, the whole 
i, stripped of every thing valuable and we would 
have lost all our property. When this news read es our country, what 
will <>ur ; ml it'.' Yiui and yours will alwa 

at my bouse, and 1 -had ever l"- delighted to * e you there. 



m— DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOl 
iy been explained in the Firsl Part of ibis Gram< 
mar that tbe demonstrative pr» i are divided into two 

onnected with 

a noan <>r the verb itre, and absolute, or such as stand alone 

and represent theme j. The former were represented 

latti r by compounds of a with 

. '•' //'', etc. It 

ii the two I 

: bis and That, bad t<> l 

from id) and Ut t either to the 
or to tlio 



PRONOUNS. 117 

llouns preceded by these pronouns, as cet homme-ci, this man, 
and cet homme-la, that man. 

The conjunctive forms agree, of course, 'with the noun which 
they qualify, the absolute with that which they represent. 
Ex. Cet homme et cette femme ne sont pas maries, this man 
and this woman are not married. 
Cette maison et celle que vons m'avez vendue, this house 

and that which you have sold me. 
Mes filles et cellesde noire voisin, my daughters and those 
of our neighbors. 

Ce is conjunctive to the verb Ure only, although in familiar 
conversation a few other verbs occur with it, as ce me semble, it 
seems to me. It has the peculiarity of leaving the verb in the 
singular, even when referring to a plural, unless the latter 
should be a pronoun of the third person plural, or a word pre- 
ceded by a preposition. In these two cases the verb is used in 
the plural. 

Ex. Ce sera nous tons qui lui en seront redevables, we all of 

us will be obliged to him for it. 
Cest vous qui etes cherts, it is you who are beloved. 
Ce sont eux qui ont ordonne tout, it is they who havo 

arranged all. 
Quoi ! c'est a ces dieux que vous sacrifiez ? What ! is it 

these gods you worship ? 

Whenever ce and etre are followed by a noun or pronoun 
preceded by a preposition, they must be connected by que with 
the following verb. 

Ex. Cest a vous que je parle, it is to you I speak. 

Ce it 'est pas de cela qriiliagit aujourdhui, that is not the 
question to-day. 

When ce is followed by a relative pronoun, ce must be 
repeated before the next verb, of which it forms the subject. 



118 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. Ce que je crains c'est d'etre surpris, what I fear is to be 
taken in. 
Ce que faime le mieux Jest de vous voir ici, what I like 
best, is to see you here. 

Ce must be supplied in French before etre, when the subject 
of the latter verb is the preceding part of the sentence. 

Ex. Le mieux dans ces cas Jest de se taire, the best in such 
cases is to be quiet. 
Vtvre lout s< ul c'est trop triste, to live quite alone is too Bad. 
Although many classic authors omit the ce when etre is fol- 
lowed by the nominative, as 

Ex. Venfer dt ift mmes est Li vieillesse, old age is the hell of 
women. 



ExBROISX. 



s to me that this wine is not s<> good as that in Hie cask. 
Thai la not possible, for this is much older and more costly, and the 
other is a wine of very little value. It Is the Dumber of people and 
the abundance of food which make the true strength and the true 
wealth of a country. It Is indifferent works that one ought to 

•t would be an act of injustice to shorten a work of great 
merit It la they who have done all this, and now they have th<> 
Impudent we who are responsible fox the result, It 

is aeitherihe arts n<>r the handicrafts that can degrade man: it is 

that .-.in do that. The trui- praise <>r ■ poet hi to retain his 

i to bear them recited In the streets The only way t<> <"m- 
]m-i men to s;'.:ik weD "f n> is t-> act welL \<<n hare done great 
things ; but "-..nt',--. th>- truth, It la hardly by yon that they have bet n 
accomplished. What] have told you la the simple truth ; you may 
behave it or n<>t, as yon choose. What we endure with hast patience, 
are calumnies and treachi I 



The afcaofai ive nol only the genera] 

meaning of »!>•' English demonstrative pronouns, but are used, 



PRONOUNS. 1 i 9 

besides, to render various other expressions, of which the follow- 
ing are the most important : 

They represent the one, when followed by a relative pronoun. 
Ex. The one for whom I work, is a better master, celui pour 
qui je travaille, moi, est un meilleur mattre. 
This is not the one whom I love best, ce n'est pas celle 
que faime le mieux. 
They represent, also, the English personal pronoun, when it 
is employed in a general sense and followed by a relative pronoun. 
Ex. He who weeps 'will be consoled, celui qui pleure sera 
console. 
He who will not labor must suffer, ceux qui ne veulent 
pas travailler doivent souffrir. 

But when the personal pronoun refers to an individual, it ia 
literally translated. 
Ex. He, who was rich, has lost every thing, lui, qui etait riche 
a perdu tout. 

They represent, also, the English one, followed by a relative 
pronoun. 

Ex. I do not like one who tells stories, je rfo.ime pas ceux qui 
font des contes. 
One who knows so well ought not to say that, celui qui 
le sait si bien ne devrait pas le dire. 
They represent, finally, the English which, when it has the 
signification of whichever. 

Ex. Take which of these papers you prefer, prenez celui de ces 

journaux que vous preferez. 
Celui, etc., must be supplied in French when in English the 
nominative of a possessive case is omitted idiomatically. 

Ex. These horses and my father's (horses) are alike, ces che- 
vaux et ceux de mon pere sont pareils. 
I will send you yours and your wife's, je vous enverrai les 
vdtres et ceux de votre femrne 



120 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Exercise. 

He who wishes to be happy in this world is not always so, because 
we rarely know what makes our true happiness. You can read which 
of these books you choose, only put them back again in their places 
in the library. He who says so is either mistaken or he says delib- 
erately what is not true ; you may take your choice. There is an old 
proverb in various languages which says : He to whom fortune pipes, 
dances well. Will you please show me your picture, I mean the one 
which you bought a year ago, when you were in Italy. I cannot show 
you that, because it is in the hands of an artist, but I can show you 
the one I brought from Italy when I was there before. He who wants 
to reap where he lias not sowed, is a dishonest man. They who talk 
will be punished, and the one who is first discovered will be punished 
very severely. Do you think yon ever could love one who has done 
such on act ? Do you reooQecl the young lady I wanted to introduce 
>, the one with the auburn hair and tin' majestic figure? Well 
1 am sorry for it, but sin- has married ami Id"; our city. 



; , celuirlh and tin- other absolute forms connecte 
with <-; and A'/, lose by that combination their general characto 
and are used to point out more individually and directly, those 
with ci representing tin- English this one, those with In the 
English thai one, and kindred expressions. 

Kx. /' lui .■'•'/, give me this one 

and t i k- thai 

. these 
are worth nothing. 
;t and its various forms represent the English the latter, 
b^ being nearer !■> the momei j, and cefo»-/&, etc., the 

former, as being n* 

Ex. D ' inrn, lf ,>i, of 

th. - former i* old, the hitter unknown. 

pronoun in their cotnper 
only. The 
latter i> in familiar oom 



PRONOUNS. 121 

Ex. Ccci me plait, et je vous dis cela tout franckement, I like 
that, and I tell you that quite openly. 
Bonjour, Monsieur, comment ca va-t-il ? Good-morning, 

Sir : how are you ? 
Hence also the first words of the revolutionary song, Ca ira, etc. 
In very familiar conversation cela occasionally answers to repre- 
sent persons only, but this rare use of cela is not to be imitated. 
Thus, upon seeing children at play, one may say : 

Cela at heureux, cela ne fait quejouer, are they happy, they 
have nothing to do but to play ! 
Cela is used for the English it, when that pronoun repre- 
sents not a noun, but a whole sentence, and is not the nomina- 
tive of the verb to be (in which case it would be translated by 
ce simply.) 

Ex. iV'y allez pas, puisque cela lui deplairait fort, do not 
go there, since it would displease him much. 
Cela me plait qiCil V a fait lui-mSme, it pleases me that 
he has done it himself. 
The English demonstrative pronouns this and that, where 
followed by the verb to be, are frequently expressed in French, 
by the two words void and voila, which thus serve, in a manner, 
as demonstrative pronouns. They consist of the imperative of 
the verb voir, vois, see or behold, and the words id and la. 
Hence they can only be used for objects virtually in sight, and 
are not admissible in interrogative sentences. Their verbal origin 
produces, moreover, the peculiar effect, that whilst nouns, which 
are the object, are placed after them, pronouns under the same 
circumstances are placed before them. 

Ex. Void rues enfants, ou sont les votres? Here or these are 
my children, where are yours ? 
Voila mon ami qui arrive enfin, there is my friend 

coming at last. 
Sonl-ce la vos enfants ou les miens ? Are those your 

children or mine ? 
Les voici,je Pavais bien dit quails ne nous manqueraient 



122 ON THE PA11TS OF A SENTENCE. 

pas ! There they are ; had I not said that they would 
not disappoint us ! 
Void and voila may be followed by an adjective or an adverb. 
Ex. Nous voila sauves pour cette fois, now we are safe for 
this time. 
Les voila a Vendroil meme ou nous les attemlions, there 
they are, at the very spot where we expected them. 
But they cannot, as in English, be followed by a participle 
present, which must be rendered in French by qui and the 
proper tense of the verb. 

Ex. Li voila qui vicnt a noire rencontre, there she is, coming 

to meet us. 
When the two words are followed by an expression of quan- 
tity, they require </* to l»; used before them. 

Ex. En voilh tin, ri j> m m trompt pas, there is one of 

them, if I am nut mistaken. 
There is virtually n<> difference of meaning between void and 
POttt, except that voila refers to what has been mentioned 

o what ia coming after. 
Ex. Vo ' ' a ■/ t'il ' j" ••■_ 101, that 

is what he proposed, and this IS what 1 want. 

In familiar style voilh . ly used interrogatively. 

Ex. En voila-t-tl tout t Is that all | 



i-i:. 
A faithful magistrate and a brave officer are equally worthy of 
i . the (tanner makes war span enemies al home, the latter apoa 

> n.-nm-s abroad. This machine is BBOVed by aprillga end is very 

Imperfeet, th and is quite new. When be 

earns Into the r<N.in he exclaimed •. " What do I bos ' ia tbii mj son, oc 
do my eyea deceive me .-" I u->k the boy by the ban I, and leading him 

lather, I said: "Tarn la your s..n, whom you though! loaf ;and 
thia is your daughter, whom yon have aererseen. These appl< 

otter tlian inv neighbor's; where mv those yen ha<i this 
aeotniagl Ho la twice great, who having graal na eeaka 



PKONOUNS. 123- 

of tliem, but leaves that to others. I do not say that, but I assure you. 
that I will not permit you to repeat it. That is easy enough, but you 
ought to try to work better than any of your rivals, and then you 
would succeed beyond. doubt. How do you do, Madam? Thank you, 
Sir, I am well, but my poor daughter has been quite sick, and that 
troubles me sorely. There she is, and I said she woidd never come ! 



IV.— RELATIVE PEONOUNS. 

Relative Pronouns have their name from the fact that tbey 
relate or refer to some preceding noun or pronoun, which is 
called their antecedent. 

Ex. II y a lien des personnes qui le savent, there are a great 
many persons who know it. 
Ce sont eux que nous blamons seuls, it is they alone 
whom we blame. 

The fundamental rule applying to the construction of all 
relative sentences is this : 

There must be in French expressed the three parts of such a 
sentence : the antecedent, the relative pronoun, and its verb. 

These three parts must follow in the order mentioned. In 
the sentence, Voila Vhomme dont je park, there is the man I 
am speaking of, Vhomme is the antecedent, dont the relative 
pronoun, and je park its verb. Thus the three parts are present, 
and they follow each other in the prescribed order. 

In English, on the contrary, the three parts are not necessa- 
rily required, one or the other being frequently omitted ; nor is 
the order in which they have to stand in French, by any means 
always observed. Hence arise the following different construc- 
tions. 

1. In English the antecedent may be omitted. Then it has 
to be supplied in French by the proper form of the demonstra- 
tive pronoun ce, etc., for things, celui, etc, for persons. 

Ex. What pleases me most is her modesty, ce (supplied) qui 
■ me plait le mieux, Jest sa modestie. 



124 OX THE FARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

I know what you want to say,/e sais re (supplied) que 

VOUS voulez dire. 
Here are all who will be present, voilli tous ceux (sup- 
plied) qui seront presents. 
2. In English the relative pronoun may be omitted. It has 
to be supplied in French. 

Ex. Where is the book she had in her hand? Oil est U- line 
</'(' (supplied) die tenait <V la main ! 
These are the men you wanted to see, voilk lei homntes 
que (supplied) vous vouliez voir. 
8. In English the preposition governing the relative pronoun 
may be placed at the end of the sentence. In French it must 
be placed before the pronoun. 

Ex. Can yon guess what I am thinking of? Pouvcz-vous 

(I, r |'| j, [•• us, ! 

Who was the man you were Bpeaking m in the street I 

• t'/it rhomtn ■■ i<i mi ! 

i. In English the relative pronoun may be separated from 

the antecedent by intervening words. In French the order of 

words _ them into immediate 

sion. 

Ex. A vessel baa arrived which bronght me a letter, fifot 

U irrivt un vaUttoM 

i/'ll >/("</ <l ■ 'In'. 

A friend told me so, who had seen it himself, j§ /'"< 
ami qui I 1 avail <-<t ■/' sesproprea >/nt.r. 
ii the verb m.i\ be separated from the relative 

pi. an • tig words. In French it must he | 

in its proper place, immediate]) after the relative pronoun, 
E , Thia is ■• il tli pri »l al Brussels has told me, voila re 
n'a Jit U /■ • lit i. 

w in ii yonr charming sister 
uin. .-jLur ckarmanU, 



PBOKOUNS. 125 

The only exception to this general rule is furnished by dont, 
which is followed by its nominative, instead of by its verb, 
although, when the following noun is in any other case, the 
rule again applies. 

Ex. You whose kindness has been so great, vous dont les 

bonles ont ete si grandes. 
But, You whose kindness I feel so deeply, vous dont je 
sens tant les bonles. 
I paid for the book whose cover I spoilt, fai payi le livre 
dontfai gate la couverture. 

It must not be forgotten that qui, etc., cannot be used whenever 
the relative pronoun is subject to a preposition, but that in all 
such cases lequel, etc., must be substituted. 
Ex. The monarch in whose States we were, le monarque dans 
les etats duquel nous etions. 
The crime for which he is condemned, le crime pozir 
lequel il a ete condamne. 



Exercise. 



If you cannot do it, the persons who are my true friends will obtain 
for me all the money I want, for my credit is what I rely on in this 
crisis. I know what would be the best medicine for you : fresh air 
and an abundance of exercise ; they are all I would prescribe for you. 
I cannot remember against whom he spoke, but it was the best speech 
I ever heard in my life. These men whose abominable crime has 
been so severety punished, will not be allowed to re-enter society — 
which is not severity but simple j ustice. When he returned to this 
country he went to see the mayor of the fortress from which he had 
escaped, and spoke to all who had known him during his captivity. 
This has brought us at last a peace, the sweetness of which surpasses 
all other pleasures, and for which we cannot be too grateful. You 
whose brilliant talents we all acknowledge, ought not, on that account, 
cease to make the greatest efforts. Were you in the ship the main- 
mast of which was struck by lightning and in which so many pas- 
sengers were killed ? 



126 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

What is occasionally used in English before nouns, with 
tl*e doable power of an adjective and a pronoun, as in the 
phrase : What money he had. In French it has to be rendered 
as if it meant : All the money. 

Ex. "What clothes they had left him were wet, tons Its vile- 
menis qiCon lux avail lainsis, etaient mouilles. 
Give him what money he may want, donnez-lui tout 

V argent qu'il luifaudra. 
. as relative pronoun, can be used only as indirect 
object, consequently it will be always accompanied by a prepo- 
sition. 

Ex. La chose a (]>!<>', ravare pense Ic mains, the thing of which 
sera think least 
I' rnns parler, this is what I 

wanted to -peak t.> yon about 
U •' ait jilnx t'rrit, there is nothing 

abonf which more baa been \\ ritten. 

is not need, bat its place is supplied 
I 

Dit a ni- toil Vautt ur, there is nothing of 
] > Go I is ii'.i tin- author. 

ised relatively, but withoul nn antecedent, has the 
and kindred • 

. give me something to writo 
about 

' '. he is rich, In- has 

rea.«>n lob 

The adv. tIi '"/ (from the Latin "''/), literally meaning, where, 

itivc pronouns preceded bj a 

preposition, but it- use i- .'united t<> definitions of time and 

• 

•t la 
moment in which . is a step towards death, 

1' ■ • i oH nuquit Afvliert, this is the hou 

which Kloliera was born. 



PRONOUNS. 127 

Oil admits of the two prepositions de and par. 

Ex. Le per'd d'oii vous ni'uvez sauve fat terrible, the danger 

from which you have rescued me was a terrible one. 
Les mot/ens par oil cet intrigant est arrive a la fortune, 

the means by which this intriguer has been so forlunate. 



Exercise. 



The city in which he arrived was full of sympathizing friends, and 
the dangers through which he had passed endeared them to him 
still more. He was received with shouts, and the house in which he 
took his lodgings was surrounded from morning till night by en- 
thusiastic crowds. Happy is he who, content with his humble fate, 
lives in the obscure condition in which Heaven has concealed hini! 
He woidd not tell us the country from which he came, and although 
we were sure enough that he was a foreigner, we could not tell where 
he was born. Tell me what you are thinking of and I will tell you 
what was in my thoughts. Henry IV., to whose kindness of heart so 
much praise has been given, was in reality a very selfish man. The 
diseases of the soul are the most dangerous ; we ought to work at 
curing them ; still, this is what we rarely think of. We have always 
something to amuse ourselves with ; and when that fails us, we go out 
into the streets, and there is no lack of oddities there. There is 
nothing of which we know less than the true state of our neighbor's 
heart. Time would fail us to tell you all the dangers through which 
we have passed and all the difficulties from which Providence has 
rescued us during our last journey. 



V.— ABSOLUTE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

The same pronouns serve in English as relative and as interro- 
gative pronouns, the only difference being that in the former 
capacity they have an antecedent to which they relate, while 
in the latter they arc used without an antecedent, so that they 
are called interrogative, when they are used in questions. 

In French the relative and the absolute pronouns resemble 
each other, but there are certain striking differences in the use 



12?, ON THE PARTS OF A SEXTEXCE. 

of both classes, which have been already stated in the First 
Part of this Grammar. Thus qui, as an absolute pronoun, is 
accusative as well as nominative, when referring to persons, and 
can never be used except as a relative pronoun. These 
and similar points of importance must here be recalled. 

Qui, as an absolute pronoun, contains its antecedent in the 
shape of a personal pronoun, which must be supplied in English. 
Ex. Qui veut purler de lout, souvent park an hazard, he who 
wants to speak of every thing, often speaks at hap- 
hazard. 
Lachi qui veut mourir, courogeux qui pad vivre, a coward 
who l?aotS t" die, brave is he who can live on. 

u an interrogative pronoun, may be subject or object 
of the sentence, and thus answers lor the English who? or 

whom | 

Ex. Q ti /< mrit eompatir aux mauz qu'on a souffertsf Who can- 
not feel for the Bufferings which be has endured ! 
i^i'i- ehoiti pour compaction dt voyagef Whom 

have yon chosen for your travelling companion ! 

repeated, has in proverbial ami rimiliar expressions the 
manning ol hen. 

urait qui riait, matt tout itaient emut, some went 
and others laughed, but nil win- moved, 

employed absolutely, is also never used as the 
nominative of a verb, for which is substituted, for the sake of 

Ex. w li.it made you come so late I Qu'ett-ct qui vout afaii 

"./ ' 
What has pleased you besl ? (jiCst-,-, qui vout a plu le 

in i' 

Que is need vti'.y M accusative of a verb, for the EnglLj 

what | 



PRONOUNS. 129 

Ex. Que voulut-il dire, en parlant si brusquement ? What did 
he mean by speaking so rudely ? 
Que voulez-vous que je fasse pour lui ? What do you 
want me to do for him ? 

Quoi, from the Latin quod, may be an absolute and an inter- 
rogative pronoun. In the former capacity it is used either 
alone or with a preposition. 

Ex. Elle chante mais je ne saurais vous dire quoi, she is sing- 
ing, but I cannot tell you what. 
A quoi vous attendez-vous defdcheux? What unpleasant 
event do you expect ? 
Quoi, followed by a comparative, has the meaning of What 
is? 

Ex. Quoi de jilus conusant que de les voir jouer? What is 

more amusing than to see them play? 
Je ne sais quoi is often used in French for the words : A cer- 
tain something. 

Ex. II y a dans cette affaire je ne sais quoi que je n'entends pas, 
there is something in this matter which I do not un- 
derstand. 



Exercise. 



To whom were you speaking when I saw you this morning ? I 
can tell you who it was, but I cannot tell you what we were speaking 
of, for that was my friend's secret. He has always something mys- 
terious about him, which I do not like, but this time it was an 
important secret which he confided to me. What do you want and 
what can I do for you ? Nothing, Sir, I thank you, for he who wishes 
to be independent must learn to help himself. When the news of our 
delivery arrived, some cried out and others were silent, but the cause 
of this different behavior was the same in all. What belongs to you 
here 1 Show it to me and I will send it to your house with \vha,t 
belongs to your sister. Will that glass contain what is in this phial, 
or must I send for a larger one ? Tell me whom you frequent and i 



130 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

will tell who you are. "Whom did you do that for ? I worked for 
inyself, which is the true policy of a man who wants to make his 
fortune. 



Lequel and its various forms can be used as interrogative 
pronouns only in the signification of "Which of several I 

Ex. Lwjui lie de ces dt ux so u rs prifert --cons / Which of these 
two sisters do you like best ? 
De tous ces livres, lesquels sont les vttrest Among all 
these books, which are yours? 

Qnd and its forma have the same meaning when used in 

reference to a pr mn; but when used in connection with a 

noun, they mean What kind of! 

Ex. Qurl est U vdtrt f Je voudrai /<• voir. Which is yours? 
I should like to Bee it. 
Quel est eel hommet II n'a pas Fair eomme il font. 
What kind of a man is he? He does not look like a 

gentleman. 
Q ell* est ■■"■ tnusique que fentends de hint What 
music is that I hear from afar .' 

It must be borne in mind, from what has been said in con- 
witfa the poMeesive pronoun, that the interrogative 
form, Whose! is in French expressed by n qui when stand* 
He or whi ii follow* d bj 

sur la route .' Whose is that 
beautiful bouse by the roadside ? 

Whose do you say ? 

But when Whose! is u»ed without the verb To be, it n ren- 
dered either by quel of !•; ording to the construction 
required. 

Ex. 1 know whose dttugl ter would suit him, js sais quells est 
it JUL qui lui conviendrait. 



PRONOUNS. 131 

Can you tell me whose portrait this is? Sauriez-vous 

me dire quel est ce portrait ? 
Whose ring ? La bague de qui ? 



Exercise. 



What was it you wanted to tell me when we were interrupted ? 
I have entirely forgotten what I intended to mention to you, but it 
was nothing very important or I would remember it now. Which of 
these two young ladies is his sister, the light-haired or the dark 
haired ? I can see which of them is the prettiest, but I cannot tell 
which is the cleverest. What success has he had in his enterprise ? 
Whose horses are these two bays which we have seen pass our house 
several times to-day ? They are my cousin's, who is very fond of fine 
horses, and if you show him a number he will tell you at once which 
are sound and which are not. What a wonderful tale ! and you hope 
that we or anybody else will believe it ? 



VI.— INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
There is a class of pronouns in French, whose special purpose 
it is to designate persons and things, not individually but vaguely 
and generally, and hence their name of indefinite pronouns. 
They differ in their use, inasmuch as some are never employed 
in connection with a noun, but stand alone and are substitutes 
for nouns, whilst others are only found before nouns, and a third 
class are used sometimes with and sometimes without a noun. 



1. — Indefinite Pronouns used alone. 

The principal pronoun of this class is on, a word of frequent 
use and great importance in French. It is derived from the 
Latin homo, now homme, and has passed through the various 
shortenings of horn, on?, and on. This derivation is still very 
influential, having the following practical effects : 

On cannot be used for any agency but that of man, hence 



132 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

excludes God, mechanical or indefinite agencies. It cannot be 
said, on crea le monde, the world was created, because the agent 
is not indefinite but known, and is not man, but God. Nor can 
it be said, on pleuvail hier, there was rain yesterday, because 
here the agency, though indefinite, is not a personal one. 

On can only be used as a nominative, the subject of a sen- 
tence, as it is derived from a nominative, and not, like all other 
nouns, from an oblique c 

On has a way of its own to avoid the hiatus, which is every- 
where else remedied by the insertion of a / between two hyphens, 
or the addition of an s to the first word ending in a vowel. 
With on, the remedy is to place an /', the article A, before it, 
when it i.> preceded by </, », on or <j<i>. according to euphony. 
Ex. Si l'"n peui vivrt tranquility <>n doit se taire, if we wish 
to live quietly, we must be discreet. 
< . ment, what is well 

coders! 1 i-. clearly expressed. 

Tin- same I i- also frequently placed before on when it begins a 

■ - < ''/"'/. they come ami 

go and ootbJng is done. 

But, aa this is done for the sake of euphony, care must be 

had not t<> insert thifl /. when the sain.' letter OCCUra already. 

ta repetition vronld I-- more offensive to the em- than the 
i 

K\. ./ '-. I <\" n«.t want him to 

DC troubled. 

// nil, i i. u ,-i'i/ devait alter, he went where ho 

was told he ought to 
It has alreadj been explained in the l"ir-t Part of this Oram* 
mar. that <>/' cannol be translated literally into Kng 

h word a- an indefinite personal pronoun. The 
substitutes ;ir ,. many, suofa a- : people, men, ' body. 

illy the passu e comti 



PEONOUNS. 133 

Ex. On rfest pas toujours mat Ire de soi, we are not always 
masters of ourselves. 
Onfrappe a la parte, si je ne me trompe pas, somebody 

knocks, if I am not mistaken. 
Ce qiton admire le plus rfest pas toujours ce qiCil y a de 
mieux, what is most admired is not always the best. 
When on is referred to in the same sentence, this can only 
be done by the reflexive pronoun se and sol, as le and lui would 
be too definite to correspond to the indefinite character of on. 
Ex. On pense toujours plus a soi qu'a autrui, people always 
think more of themselves than of others. 
On s'en est beaucoup emerveille a la cour, they have 
wondered very much at it at court. 
On is naturally masculine singular; nevertheless, when it so 
evidently refers to women or to a plural as to leave no doubt 
on the mind, it may be accompanied by an adjective or parti- 
ciple in the feminine or the plural. 

Ex. Ah, Madame, on vCest pas toujours jeune et jolie, ah, 
Madam, people (you) are not always young and 
pretty. 
On n'est pas des esclaves pour etre si maltraites, we are 
not slaves to be so badly treated. 
On must be repeated before every verb for which it serves 
as subject. 

Ex. On le loue, on le menace et on n'obtient rien, he is praised, 

he is threatened, and nothing is gained by it. 
On may be placed before every kind of verb, except imper- 

verbs, because their agency is not that of man. 
Ex. On aime et Von est aime, we love and we are loved. 

On tombe dans de mauvaises habitudes et on s'en repent, 

people fall into bad habits and repent. 
On couvient qu'on s'est trompe, they admit that they have 
been mistaken. 



134 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

When on occurs twice in the same sentence it must necessa- 
rily refer to the same subject, or the construction would bo 
incorrect. It cannot be said, on dit qu'oa a pris la ville, because 
the subject of dit is not the same as that of a pris. It must be 
expressed thus : on dit que la ville a ete prise, they say that the 
city has been taken. 

Although or may be translated by on?, it cannot be used for 
the English one, followed by a relative pronoun. This must be 
translated, when indefinite, by quelqu^un, and when definite by 
cclui. 

Ex. I know one who would do it,/e sais quclquun qui pour- 
rail le /aire. 
One who COnld say so would say anything, cclui qui 
dirait c-ld, dirait tout ce qu'on voudruit. 

On is frequently used in conversation to designate persom 

•it, either the speaker himself or the person Bpokcn to. 

This i- especially done when ironical politeness or downright 

rudeness is to \«- conveyed and yet the directness of the personal 

pronoun i> to 

qu'on pourrail me reprendre, you are 
that you could reprove me. 
On '•""< at infinimeni oblige, Monsieur, 1 am infinitely 
oblig Ironical.) 



Vice can only be ovemotne l>y fleeing from it. People often think 

thai men irho look benevolent rod receive everybody with a smile, 

are very kind, but they ai I thai thewarkad 

•..mi end, inn unfortunately the last news by the telegraph is 

o hopeful, and it i- >ai<l now, thai the war will recommence soon. 

They ought to have rewarded this greai general by giving hira an 

tiling upon him ■ i enakm, for be i- poor and he ba 
hi> health la the service of 1 » i — country. What «lo people think of hi* 
la>t work, do tin-, admin it aa lunch as his format writings, or d« 



PRONOUNS. 135 

they say it is inferior ? I do not know what has been done for him, but 
I know that something has been given to him, either an estate or a 
large sum of money. It is a maxim of French philosophers that men 
do not love those to whom they owe much, because gratitude is the 
heaviest burden that can oppress men. What a sad sentiment ! If we 
wish to live quietly we must learn to despise the talk of fools, the 
hatred of the envious and the insolence of the rich. Six', she said with 
a mocking courtesy, I am your humble servant, and I will not trouble 
you any more. Paris is an admirable place : a hundred things happen 
there every day which are unknown in the provinces and admired 
even in the great capital. 



Quelqu'un, from the Latin qualis and unus, is used absolute- 
ly, i. e. without reference to any noun, and then occurs only in 
the masculine singular and plural (quelques-uns), for persons. 
Ex. Quelqu'un a dit que Vdme du monde est le soleil, some- 
body has said the sun is the soul of the world. 
Quelques-uns Jen sont deja alles, some have already left. 
In this sense it can only be used as subject of a verb ; and 
when Somebody is to be translated as object of a verb, the 
French substitute for it quelques personnes. 

Ex. I have spoken to some, fat parle a quelques personnes. 
That may surprise some, it has not surprised me, cela 
•pent surprendre quelques personnes, il ne m\i pas sur~ 
pris, moi. 
Quelqu'un will be translated by Any or Anybody, in interro- 
gative sentences. In this case it must be treated, when the 
subject of the sentence, like a noun, and repeated after the verb 
in the form of the proper pronoun. 

Ex. ISavez-vous dit a quelqu'un ? Have you told anybody 
so? 
Quelqu'un est-il venu pendant mon absence ? Has anybody 

been here during my absence ? 
Quelqu'un cannot be used in connection with a negation, in 
which case personne must be substituted. 



J 36 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. I have not mentioned it to anybody, je ne I'ai mention- 

ne dpereonne. 
Anybody, standing alone in English, and meaning, that there is 
no choice, is rendered in French by riimporte qui. 
Ex. As for me, you may tell it to anybody, quant d moi, vow 
pourrez I dire a n'impai I 

Quelqu'un, also, represents the English one, followed by a 
relative pronoun. 

Ex. Je »e saurais estimer quelqu'un qui agirait ainsi, I could 

not esteem one who could act so. 
When tiiis pronoun is referred to in the same sentence, this 
is done by the reflexive pronoun a 01 

Ex. < "• i quelqu'un qui ne penm qu'h mm, that is some one 
who thinks only of himself. 

- mebody lias made 
a mistake bj going thi 

Quelqu'un may be, secondly, used relatively, i. e. with refer- 
to a DOUn, and in that CSS* ii has a feminine as wvll as a 
dine, and relates to things as well as to persons, but the 
da or tilings must be either mentioned in the same sen* 
ted by en. 

1 1 • you 
im .- 1 1 1 \ of these gontlenm 

i » avoir quelquet-unet, 
H.,\ o you ve 1 have some. 

When Hccompaniod by an ad, ju'un requires the 

addition of 

]. N // ome fresh 

. in contradiction to 
n aueun 

n a me 

</ 



PRONOUNS. 187 

Some, repeated, is not translated by quelqu'un, but in the fol 
lowing manner : 

Ex. Some were good and some were bad, les uns etaient bans, 
les autres etaient mauoais. 

Chacun, from the Latin quisque unus, is like quelqiCun used 
absolutely, instead of a noun, or relatively, with reference to a 
noun. In the former case it means everybody or every one, 
and occurs only in the masculine. 

Ex. Chacun croit avoir le sens commun, everybody thinks ho 
has common sense. 
J'ai paye chacun de mes creanciers, I have paid every one 
of my creditors. 

As a relative pronoun chacun occurs in the feminine also and 
has a distributive meaning, corresponding to the English each. 
Ex. Regardez separement chacune de ces medailles, look at each 
of these medals separately. 
Chacun de. nous prendra son parti, each one of us will 
decide for himself. 
There is some difficulty in deciding when chacun is to be 
represented by the singular pronoun son, sa and ses, or by the 
plural pronoun leur. The decision depends entirely upon the 
meaning to be conveyed : if the possessive pronoun refers to 
each, individually, son must be used ; if it refers to each and all, 
collectively, leur must be used. 

Ex. J^ai paye ces hommes, a chacun sa part, I have paid these 
men, to each one his share. 
Les langues ont, chacune, leur bizarrerie, languages have, 
each one, their peculiarity. 

Some additional aid may be obtained from the fact that son 
is invariably employed when chacun is placed after I he direct 
object of the verb, because in all such cases the latter has a dis- 
tributive meaning, whilst leur will be used when chacun precedes 
the direct object. 



13S OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. iZs ont donne leur avis, chacun selon ses vues, they have 
given their opinion, each one according to his views. 
lis out rempli chacun leur devoir, they have done their 
duty, each one of them. 
Chacun may he represented in the same sentence by il, but 
if reflexive, se and sot only can be used. 

Ex. Chacun pense quil le t>ait le micux, everybody thinks he 
knows best. 
Dans ces cas-la, chacun ve pense qua soi, in such cases 
everybody thinks but of himself. 

Un chacun anil t""t chacun are antiquated expressions, occur- 
rinu r in ol<l.-r authors. Inn not admissible now. 

. .-wry one of us has 
Disown opinion. 

>", which is also need as a noun, is employed as as 
indefinite pronoun in the sense of anybody. It becomes ncga* 
live, meaning nobody, only when accompanied l>\ »■. 

Ex. Pertontu •<■'■ matin t lias anybody been 

here this morning I 

Hoint ji n'ai vu pertonne t no, Sir; 
.il nobody. 
• <1 by an adjective requires, like all pronouns, 

the pn 

Ex. D • )■ tu eonnaU pertonne tTheureux^ in thai 

know nobody w ln> is happy. 

from the Latin quia and cunque, means whoever, 
whir but «:ui be used with n erence to pel 

only. It lias n<» plural, but it may be used with reference to 
feminine nouns, if they are mentioned in the same sentence. 
Ex. Q . whoever nptlla 

bun 
Quiconq . ' w Inch 

ever be bold enough. 



PEONOTJNS. 131 

Whichever, etc., applied to things, are rendered in French by 
the demonstrative pronoun. 
Ex. Take whichever you want, prenez celui qui vous con 
vicndra. 

Rien, from the Latin accusative rem, means any thing, and 
becomes negative, with the meaning of nothing, only when ac- 
companied by ne. 

Ex. II Va fait sans rien dire, he did it without saying any 
thing. 
Rien de plus facheux est-il jamais arrive? Has anything 

more provoking ever happened ? 
Je rien suis rien el je ne veux rien savoir, I know nothing 
of it and wish to know nothing. 
Rien is one of the few words which, being the direct object 
of a verb, may be placed before the infinitive, and, for the pur- 
pose of great emphasis, even before the participle past. 

Ex. // ne vautrien, il ne sail rien f aire, he is good for nothing, 
he cannot do any thing. 
Je vous assure solennellement que je ne lui ai rien dit, 
I assure you solemnly, I have told him nothing at all. 



Exercise. 

Somebody told me that you left town and were living in the coun- 
try, but I hear so many stories now-a-days, that I have almost deter- 
mined not to believe anybody. Had you spoken to anybody of your 
plans, for they seem to be known by everybody ? I shall never be 
able to trust one who was willing to betray his country when it was 
in danger. Whoever expects a certain misfortune may already be con- 
sidered as unhappy. He offered this reward to any one who would 
discover the author of that atrocious murder, but nobody has yet 
announced Limself to claim the money. Has anyone ever seriously 
doubted the existence of God ? These flowers are very pretty, but 
some of them have thorns which hurt my hand. Several ladies had 
promised to come, but some sent an excuse and others stayed away 
without saying any thing. Try each one of your friends separately 



140 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

and you will see how very few really sincere ones there are. They 
brought their offerings to the temple, each one according to his means 
unl his piety. Caesar and Pompey had each their merit, hut they 
were different merits. Did you find any thing remarkable in the 
works of that author? He left us without saying any thing, and con- 
sequently nothing can be done to help him. 



2. — Indefinite Pronouns, which are always joined to a Noun. 
Quelque, from the Latin qualisque, and its plural quelques, 
correspond to the English Some, in the sense of a small quan- 
tity, in the singular, and a small number, in the plural. 

!■!> elides ita final <' only before UTl and auiir, making 

; i'.l'itr, , somebody else. 

JSiX, II doit avoir quelque passion secrete^ lie must have some 
i I passion. 
Q u \quet crimes toujours precedent lesgrandt criines,6ome 
crimes always precede great Crimea. 

Quelq well distinguished from the partitive 

article, which always expresses a part of a whole, whilst quelque 
means only one out of a number, or Some in contradistinction 
t<. None. 

Ex. V tans doutt quelque argent, yon will certainly 

have some money. 
// yaura - ru obligeante, there will 

perhaps be some raon. 

_. like quelqu* Un y always distinctly Some, in 

be used negatively, except in 
ns. Aueun is used for Some in negative sentences. 

brave homuu f Mi^lit there not 

Itli tli" noun chose, thin 
.line. 

. 1 have something 

to show yon. 



PRONOUNS. 141 

Chrtque holds the same relation to chacun that quefque holds 
to qiulqiCun, only it has of course no plural, as it means Each or 
Every. 

Ex. Chaque passion parle un different langage, every passion 
speaks a different language. 
A chaque jour suffit sa peine, each day has its own 
troubles. 
Quelconque, from the Latin qualiscunque, corresponds to 
the English Whatever (it may be), and occurs only after a 
noun. 

Ex. II rHy a chose quelconque qui puisse Vy obliger, there is 
nothing whatever that could induce him. 
Un homme quelconque auruit mieux fait, any man what- 
soever would have done better. 

In English, Any is often substituted for Whatever, and must 
then be translated by the same word. 
Ex. Vous pouvez me donner un Here quelconque, you may give 

me any book. 
In mathematics, quelconque is used in the plural. 
Ex. Deux points quelconques etant donnes, any two points being 

given. 

Certain becomes a pronoun only in the sense of Some, and 
may in that case be preceded by the indefinite article. 

Ex. Cerlaines personnes nous en oni averti, some persons 
have warned us against it. 
Un certain homme est venu nous le dire, a certain (some) 
man came and told us so. 



Exercise. 

Some ancient authors have maintained that doctrine, but in our 
day it has long since been abandoned. Every age has its pleasure, 
every condition its charms ; good follows evil, and smiles follow tears. 
We went to see a certain person, who had assured us that he could euro 



142 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

us of this disease, bat we found him to be an impostor. There is 
always some mystery about his movemeuts, and his enemies intimate 
that he prefers it, because it gives him apparently a little more im- 
portance. If we could find some house that would suit us in your 
neighborhood we would take it immediately, but so far we have not 
been able to find any. If I were you, I would take any house rather 
than to board with my wife and children; it is the saddest way 
of living I know, to have no home. He told me, with tears in his 
eyes, that after having paid all his creditors, there would not be 
left him any thing whatever, but somebody else assured me that he 
was not quite so destitute. 



3. — Indefinite Pronouns used with or without a Noun. 

Autre, from the Latin alio; corresponds to the English Other, 
and pre ''ins it qualifies, bat follows other indefinite 

prono 

Ex. // uf croyaii pas qu'U y dit un autre monde, he did not 
believe there was another world. 
Ufaxidra lui donner quelqu 1 in*, you will have 

. e him some other medicine. 

u mil ait, Dothing else would suit me. 
It is, properly ppeaking, a genuine pronoun only when it is 
not accompanied by a noun, bnt acta as a substitute. 

Ex. Un autre ne vous parlerait pas tri franchement, anybody 
else would not speal • ly to you. 

Anoth : ly translated by another. 

Ex. Xoncaii give me aow another om - m' en donner 

tun fre. 

It hai n mentioned t lint the plan] form autre* is 

d added to the pronouns nous and vous, when a distinction 

. liahed by natfamalitj a <t the like. 

Ex. i i you Englishmen 

know nothing "i that 

'("'inn, wo are 
uat*l to that, wi who uri phyatolaaa 



PRONOUNS. 1-13 

Autre chose, like quelque chose, is treated as a masculine. 
Ex. Consolez-vous; autre chose vous sera accord e, console your- 
self, something else will be granted you. 
Lun Vautre represents the English One another or Each 
other, and may be used in both numbers and genders either 
jointly or separately. 

Ex. II se ha'issent les uns les autres, they hate each other. 
II donne a Pun ce qu'il retire a Vautre, he grants to one 
what he takes from the other. 
It must be borne in mind, that in English the preposition is 
placed before Each other or One another, whilst in French it 
must be placed between Pun and Vautre. 

Ex. They always speak badly of each other, Us mediseni 
toujours Pun de P autre. % 

"What a pity to see them unchained against each other ! 
Quelle pitie que de les voir dechaines les uns contre les 
autre s I 

Another, when it means One more, must be translated by 
encore un. 
Ex. I will lend you another hundred, if you want it, je vous 
preterai encore une centaine, s'il le faut. 
L'un et Vautre, represents the English Both, when united, 
and requires the verb to be used in the plural. 

Ex. L'un et Vautre rapportent les memes cir Constances, they 

both report the same facts. 
"When they are subject to a preposition, the latter must be 
repeated before each part. 

Ex. J'ai satisfait a Pune et d Pautre objection, I have met 
both objections. 
On ne se sert c/ubre egalement de Pane et de Pautre main., 
we rarely use both hands alike. 
When they are joined to a noun, the latter remains singular, 
f»]th ough it has a plural meaning. 



144 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. Fun et f autre climat lui conviennent pru, both climates 

do not suit hira well. 
Autrui, from the Latin altcri, is indeclinable, and applicable to 
men and women only, when they are taken in a general sense. 
The word is not used except as an indirect object, preceded by 
prepositions. 

Ex. Attendez <T autrui ce que vousfaites a autrui, expect from 
others what you do unto others. 
Nous sommes prompts a mprendre hs fautes tfautmi, we 
arc quick in blaming the faults of others. 
Ful, aucun and pas un represent the English No or None, and 
have, generally, the Bame meaning; still, there are certain differ- 
ences to be noticed in the use which is made of these three 
p^iouns. 

Nul ; ,nd its feminine nullc is most frequently placed before 

nones, although rttiJ is the only 01 f these pronouns which 

the subject of a — k without accompanying 
a noun. 

Ex. Nul komrm mgiml, no man is free 

from hereditary sin. 
///„„„„„ , ilh part son honheursurla tern, 

man finds hia bappineai nowhere on earth. 

D0 one is satisfied with 

bis l"t. 

; in the plural only in order to express null, of no 

Kn 7 - | nullet, all these proceedings 

amoanl to noA 

. f,,,m the Latin a ■ S»tive meaning 

only when accorafanied by ne t and then takes the pis 

Ex. Aucun hommt a-t-il jamais fait mieuxt Has any man 



PRONOUNS. 145 

Je doute qu'il y ait aucun auteur sans defaut, I doubt if 

there be any author without defect. 
Je nejoue d" 1 aucun instrument, I play on no instrument. 
Aucun may also be used in the plural when it accompanies 
nouns which occur in the plural only. 

Ex. II rHa fait aucuns preparatifs pour son voyage, he has 

made no preparation for his journey. 
Pas un and pas une is the strongest of these negative pro- 
nouns, meaning distinctly not one. It is used without a noun 
only in familiar style. 

Ex. II n'y a pas une seule personne qui le sache, there is not a 
single person who knows it. 
H est aussi savant que pas un (familiar), he is as learned 
as any one. 



Exercise. 



When he had finished the account of his adventures in the Pyrenees, 
the boys who had listened very attentively, said : Tell us something 
else now. There is not one of these books which I have not read, but 
no book could ever keep me awake, when night fell. Is there any one 
of all the painters who has better understood what artists call the 
clair-obscur ? Do not trouble yourself with the affairs of others, you 
have enough to do to save your own little fortune. Here are my 
father and my mother ; I have seen them both only once during the 
last year, and they themselves have not seen each other for the same 
time. People ought not to slander each other : that is one of the 
meanest wrongs which they can commit, because it benefits no one 
and always does much harm. These two nations have fought against 
each other for many generations, but now they are good friends, and 
have learnt, both, to value the power of such a union. He has spared 
no expense in making my sister comfortable, and when she was sick 
he did all for her that the most devoted husband could have done. 



Meme, from the Latin metipsissimus (Italian medesimo, 
Spanish mismo, French mime), is an adjective, with the mean- 



146 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

ing of Same, an adverb with the meaning of Even, and a pronoun 
only when it stands instead of a noun or is placed after it in the 
signification of Even. 

Ex. Pierre et Cephas Jest le mime, Peter and Cephas are the 
same. 
Vos droits et les miens sont les mimes, your rights and 

mine are the same. 
Le roi mime n'oserait pas le /aire, even the king would 
not dare do it. 

The conjunctions As and That, used after The same, are in 
French expressed alike by que. 

Ex. Is this the same man that I saw yesterday? Est-ce le 
mime komme quefai vu hierf 
Rich men have the >:mie end a^ poor men, les riches out 

la in' 'mi fin urn lis pauvres. 
The same as, when it means Lik.', is translated by comme before 
nouns ; and The game, when it stands alone, l>y </- 
Ex. II«- treats me die same as Ids brother, U ///< traite eomme 
ton j, 
He speaks and act.s tin- - 

Til, from the Latin talis, represents the English Such, but is 
not used like the latter with the indefinite article after it, hut 
takes it before it. In the plural it requires the partitive article 

dr. 

Ex. \- it possible that such ■ man ean auoceed I BstM pos- 
sible ,jii'nii til homme puistt revestr/ 
Such persons never know wbal they ought to do,de telle* 
personnel n< tavent jamais a qu'U/autj 

Such a, in interjections, cannot !><• expressed by /</, bnt l>v 
the adverb si before the adjective. 

Ex. She is siwh a beautiful w<>man ! C'tst line si bills fimwe ! 

lie has told as such consoling words] // wms a dU dot 



PRONOUNS. 147 

Such, before adjectives and followed by As, and consequently 
expressing a comparison, is translated not by tel, but like other 
comparisons. 

Ex. If I were in such a good condition as he, si moi, fetais 
dans une si bonne position comme lui. 

Such, before nouns and followed by As, is translated by teh 
placed after the noun. 

Ex. Such animals as this are dangerous, les animaux tels que 
celui-ci sont dangereux. 

Such as, is occasionally used in English with the meaning of 
Those who, and must in that case be translated like the latter 
phrase. 

Ex. Avoid such as may tempt you, evitez ceux qui peuvent vous 
tenter. 

Tel is employed in proverbial expressions, without noun or 
article, to represent the English Many a one, in similar expres- 
sions. 

Ex. Tel seme qui ne recueille pas, many a one sows who does 
not reap. 
Tel rit qui pleurera, many a one laughs who is going to 
weep. 
Plusieurs, which has no singular and means Several or Many, 
can be used without a noun only as subject to a verb ; in all 
other relations it must be accompanied by a noun. 

Ex. Plusieurs se sont trompes en voulant tromper les auires, 
many have deceived themselves, when they wished to 
deceive others. 
On le dit ainsi dans plusieurs journaux, it is sai'I so in 
several papers. 

Tout, from the Latin totus, which makes its plural in tons, 
has a variety of special significations, of which the following are 
the most important : 

Tout, by itself, represents every thing or all things. 



US OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. Tout tombe, tout peril autour de nous, all things foil and 
perish around us. 
Tout etait adore dans un Steele pa'icn, every thing was 
worshipped in a pagan age. 
In this signification it may, like rien, be placed before the 
infinitive and the participle past of the verb of which it is the 
direct object. 

Ex. Quand il Fa vu il lui a tout avoue, when he saw him lie 
confessed to him every thing. 
Muintenant, cependant, il ne veut pas tout dire, now, how- 
ever, he will not tell all (every thin-). 
It must not be forgotten that when tout is followed by the 
relative pronoun, the antecedent in the form of ce must bo 
supplied. 

Ex. All I kn.-w of it is this, tout ■-,- qm J saie eet ceci. 

lsthatailtli.it embarrasses you 1 Est-ee la tout ce qui 

represents everybody or all, and may be 
used instead of the personal pronouns as well as in addition to 

thrill. 

Ex. Tout e'en ollaient quand la cirimonie nit fair, they all 

went away when the c. ■ivin..n\ \\a- over. 

eni tout dtt tannes, annul /<■ bateau ft voile t 
thr\ all shed tears when tie' vessel tailed. 

1 by the relative pronoun, requires 
the addition of an antecedent 

Ex. I bave — i .ill who were there when it happened, fai en 

I tela arriva. 
When the English All refers not indefinitely t>> all, but bo all 
of a home, a I of a society, etc., it is 

translated by ton 

Ex. 11 body at home? Comment H portt tout U 

moudt <h I VOUi ! 



PRONOUNS. 149 

Have they all come? Est-ce que tout le monde est 

arrive ? 

Tout, before nouns, has a collective meaning, with the sig- 
nification of The whole or All the, when it takes the article be- 
tween itself and the noun. 

Ex. Tout Vhomme ne meurt pas, the whole of man does not 
die. 
On ne peut jamais voir tous les corps celestes, we can 

never see all the celestial bodies. 
II a mange toute une fortune, he has spent a whole 
fortune. 

Tout, before nouns, has a distributive meaning, with the 
signification of Each or Every, when it takes no article but pre- 
cedes the noun immediately. 

Ex. Tout citoyen doit servir son pays, every citizen must 
serve his country. 
Tout homme qui aime la verite en eat Hesse, every man 
who loves truth is offended by it. 

When tout thus qualifies the name of a city, it remains mas- 
culine, though the latter may be feminine. 
Ex. Tout Venue y etait, all Venice was there. 

When tout qualifies a personal pronoun, subject or object of 
a verb, it is placed after the latter. 

Ex. They all speak at once, Us parlent tous a lafois. 

It appears that they have broken them all, il parait quHl 
les ont brisees toutes. 

All, is in English often followed by the preposition of, before 
nouns or pronouns. This is not used in French, and tous is 
placed after the pronoun. 
Ex. Are all of these men to follow us ? Tous ces liommes nous 
suicront-ils ? 
All of you must do your duty, tous decree fair e tous voire 
devoir. 



150 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Tous and toutes in definitions of time have the meaning of 
Each or Every, with even greater force than chaque. 

Ex. Je le vols tous les matins qui se promene, I see him every 
morning taking a walk. 
H va nous V envoy er toutes les quatre semaines, he is going 
to send it to us every four weeks. 

Tous and toutes, followed by the adverb tant, has the special 
meaning of As many as. 

Ex // est muttre absolu dc tous taut que nous sommes, he is 
absolute master of us all (as many as we are). 
On les a chassis tons taut quHls furent, they have been 
driven off, every one of them. 



BxXBCISB, 



Do you know such a person 1 1 have never heard even such a 
name, and know nothing of it Bnch people always Imagine that 
they arc right and everybody else is wrong; [dislike them even more 
than really disagrei able peopla Several ladies had come to our house 
and were waiting Bar my sister when theaccidenl befell her, which, 
on the same day, deprived me and yon of a beloved relative. Be Is 
such a learned man thai I would have thought him the beet | 
to till thai chair, bn1 they have cl « m i nother one. [f I had been In 
such s dangerous position, I would n>>t have known how t«> help my- 
and it li even likely thai I would have perished miserably. 
Ev< ry good citizen musl serve his country, the Boldiei with Ids blood, 
the priest with his seal All novelties in poinl of religion are dan- 
gerous, but they ought not to be condemned too hastily; onto 
trarv, we ougp.t to try them all. and perhaps something pxxl may 
bom the frraminatJim Any other pine- but a throne seems 

unworthy of her. Such is the loftiness of her mind and the majesty <>f 

her appearance That liberty has it-* limits, as well as every other 

liberty. The wholi was spent in singing and dancing, and 

they tell me they do this every evening far a week I 



PRONOUNS. 15 1 

4. — Indefinite Pronouns followed by Que. 

A number of these indefinite pronouns are only used in con- 
nection with a verb with which they are united by means of 
the conjunction que. They express, with one exception, the 
English word Ever, and as this is naturally suggestive, not of 
positive facts, but of contingencies, they are followed by the 
subjunctive mood. The following are the most important of 
this class. 

Qui que ce soit, whoever, or anybody, any one. 
Ex. Faites entrer qui que ce soit qui me demande, admit any 
one who may ask for me. 
Qui que ce soit a qui Von donne, on s'en plaindra, to 
whomever it may be given, people will complain. 

Quoi que ce soit, whatever, or any thing. 

Quoi que ce soit qu'on dise de moi, taisez-vous, whatever 
they may say of me, keep silence. 

Quel que soit, with its feminine and plural forms, whoever 
or whatever. 

Ex. Quel que soit le resultat, nous y consentons, whatever the 
result may be, we agree to it. 
Je le dirai a ces dames quelles qu'elles soient, I will tell it 
these ladies, whoever they may be. 

Quelque — que, with its plural quelques — que, is used with a 
noun between the two parts, and then means Whatever. 

Ex. Quelques talents quHl ait, il «'a pas de genie, whatever 
talents he may have, he has no genius. 

Quelque — que, with an adjective between the two parts, has 
She meaning of However. 

Ex. Quelque grands que soient ces talents, il en abuse, how- 
ever great his talents may be, he makes a bad use of 
them. 



152 OS THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Tout — qur, with an adjective betwen the two parts, means 
also However, but it is the only one of these indefinite pronouns 
which is followed by the verb in the indicative mood, as it 
always expresses a fact, and not a contingency. 

Ex. Tout eloquent quHl eat, il ne convainc pas, eloquent as he 
is, he does not convince. 
Je Pai vu tribucher, tout savant qu'il est, I have seen him 
stumble, however learned he is. 

It must be noted that qui que ce soil and similar terms may, 
of course, be followed by the past tense also. 

Ex. Qui que ce ful qui l< . il refasa toujours, who- 

migbt a>k for him, he always concealed himself. 
Quoiqw 'e franchement, whatever 

you may b it frankly. 

Whatever, al the end of a sentence, must In French have its 
proper verb supplied. 

Ex. I will grant yon any favor whatever, je D0ttf (iC'-oni mi 

The same expression In French answers forthe English Bams — 
>.r other. 
Ex. i ]; or other, do 

The - iswera Soar the English Ever so, 

followed by an adji 
Ex. I will accept . it ev< r ^> bumble, face 

suit. 






A wnmnn, what may bring to bar busban.i's 

house, *».ii ruin- it. if ahe Introduces there extravagance for which 

i w. v. r powerful they may l..-, I do not fear 

tli- ■in. for I have the right on my aide, an.]. In the end, that must 

always oonqtu r. Whatev< r ii may be they ask of yon, promise them 

lain, ut lb.- mill.- time, that you cunuu; .: 



VERES. 153 

thing whatever without the consent of your father. Whoever he 
may be, he ought not to have acted thus ; for, no man can do wrong, 
who has a conscience, without repenting it. Frivolous as she is, I 
can hardly think she would have treated her lovtr so badly, for 
there is dishonesty in breaking her solemn word. Do not fear the 
empty power of men : however powerful they may be, they are what 
we are. Whatever mortals may be, we must live among them, and a 
fastidious man is unhappy through himself. This is a universal law, 
and applies to all men : I except from it nobody, whatever he be or 
can be. We ought never to speak evil of anybody whatever in his 
absence. Whatever merit we may ]jave, we cannot, unless we possess 
luck and protection at court, succeed in any thing whatsoever. We 
shall do our duty, whatever you may say to the contrary ; and if we 
receive no other reward, we shall be content with the consciousness 
of having done what we ought to have done. 



CHAPTER V. 



VERBS. 

The Verb has its name in French as in English from its im- 
portance in a sentence : it is verbum, the Word, by eminence. 
For nouns simply name a person or an object, but do not con- 
vey a thought ; it is only when we say something of this person 
or object, when we use a verb, that an idea is communicated 
from one person to another. A sentence, therefore, may consist 
of a noun and a verb only, and will already fulfil the purposes 
of language. 

The principal purpose of the verb is to affirm souething, and 
to qualify this affirmation by designating person, number, time 
and mood. These four qualities of the verb are the cause of its 
various forms, and constitute what is common'.y called their 
conjugation. 

There are three Persons in the verb : the first, or that of the 
speaker ; the second, or that of the person spoken to ; aud the 



154 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

third, or that of the person spoken of. They are designated by 
different endings of the verb, and by the personal pronouns 
placed before it. 

There are two Numbers in the verb, as in the noun, the 
singular and the plural, designated also by different endings of 
the verb and by the personal pronouns. 

There are two classes of Tenses, to express time : viz., simpie 
tenses, which are made from the root of the verb, as it is found 
in the infinitive after cutting off the infinitive termination ; and 
compound tenses, which are Termed by the aid of one of the 
two auxiliary verbs, avoir or etre, with the participle past of 
the verb. 

There are four .Vn»<ls in the verb, to express the mood or 
manner of the action of the veib : the Indicative, for all that is 
positively asserted ; the Subjunctive, for what is mentioned only 
as contingent; the Conditional, tor actions subject to conditions; 
and the Imperative, for that which is ordered. 

'I he Infinitive, which is often called a mood, is in reality 
nothing hut the name of the Verb. 



DIFFKRENT CLASSES OF VEHBS. 

Y.-rhs are divided into different classes, according to the 
nature ol their signification. 

Ael • - an action which baa or may have a 

direct object. Tie \ an i as Buch by the power they 

jvetqu'un <>v y/</y/r chose after the first per- 
ion of the present indicative. Thus chanter ia an active verb, 
because we can lelqm cho8e t 1 sine; some* 

thin-: '-/-, because we can say, Jt c«us,<U- qttelqvi , un i 

1 comfort somebody^ but marcher is not an active verb, be- 
we cannol quelqu'un <<v ouelque chose, 

1 march somebody or something. 

ict of the verb undergoes 



VERBS. 1 55 

its action and is its own direct object. Je suis console, I am 
comforted, expresses that 7, the subject, undergo comforting-, 
and am, therefore, the object of the action of comforting. 

Properly speaking, there are no passive verbs in French, be- 
cause it has no power to make a verb passive by simply 
changing its form, as was the case in Latin, where amare became 
passive by being changed into amari, and amo by becoming 
amor. There are, therefore, various ways by which the French 
endeavors to supply the loss of the Latin passive, of which the 
following are the most important: 

Verbs are made passive — 

1. By the use of etre with their participle past. Thus the 
verb proteger, to protect, is used actively in 

La loi protege tous les citoyens, the law protects all citizens, 
and passively in 

Tous les citoyens sont proteges par la loi, all citizens are pro- 
tected by the law. 

This mode of forming a passive is admissible only with active 
verbs, in cases where a real action has taken place ; the only 
exception being the verb obeir, to obey, which, though a neuter 
verb, may be used passively : II est obei, he is obeyed. 

2. By the use of the reflexive pronoun se with the third per- 
son, in all cases where other than active verbs are employed, or 
where no real action takes place. 

Ex. Le ble comment se vend-il maintenant ? How is wheat 
sold now-a-days ? 
De tels evenements ne se repetent pas, such events are not 



3. By the use of the indefinite personal pronoun on, when 
the agent of the action of the verb is either unknown or pur- 
posely left undecided. 

Ex. On lit que le cholera iCy est pas, it is said that the 
cholera is not there. 



15G ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

On craint la guerre qu .nd die vient de cesser, war is 
feared, when it has just ceased. 

Neuter Verbs express either an action which has no direct 
object, though it may have an indirect object with which it is 
connected by a preposition, or a mere state or condition. Thus 
venir, to come, expresses an action, but one which cannot have 
a direct object, as we cannot say venir quelquun or quelque 
chose, to come somebody or something, though ■we may say 
venir de la ville, to come from town. Thus dormir, to sleep, is 
a neuter verb, because it expresses no action at all, but simply a 
state, in which man may be. 

Pronominal Ferbs are ail those which are accompanied in the 
infinitive by the reflexive pronoun «r, and in all other parts of 
their conjugation by two personal pronouns. They are : 

Beflexive verbs, when the action of the verb reacts upon the 
subject >'-, in tin.- case, Is translated bj one's self, and the second 
pronoun by myself, thys< I 

Ex. // faut « ' -'';»«', we must conquer 

ourselves, if we esteem 

Reciprocal \> rbs, when the action of the verb reacts mutually 
upon subject and object > S V, in this case, is translated by Each 
other, and bo i- the second pronoun. 

Ex. lis allaient A /..///,•« et i . they went to light 

each other, and they killed each other. 

Pronominal r< rbs proper, when thej are pronominal only in 

a and not BO in I. . and the BOCOttd 

m i"' main untrenslate 1 ':•> English. 
1a. SlU m repent . -he repents .-ill sho 

ha- done. 
II / fUghl to mistrust 

those people. 

It must ie. t in •• ■ He- pronoi 

minal, and take the a the infinitj od pro 



VERBS. 157 

noun in the whole conjugation, when the personal pronouns are 
substituted for possessive pronouns. They are then conj ugated 
with etre, like all pronominal verbs without exception. 
Ex. Elle est allee se laver les mains, she has gone to wash her 
hands. 
Je me suis casse lajamhe en sautant, I have broken my leg 
by jumping. 

Impersonal Verbs express an action, the subject of which is 
not a person, but a vague, indefinite agency. They are used 
only in the third person singular, and the pronoun il, which 
serves as subject, corresponds to the English It or There. 

Ex. II convient que vous suivies ses conseils, it is proper for you 
to follow his advice. 
II y a un charme inconcevable dans sa voix, there is an 
incomprehensible charm in her voice. 
Every thing that concerns the form of the verb has already 
been mentioned in the First Part of this Grammar. It is only 
on the use of the verb, in connection with other words, that 
additional rules will be given here. 



THE VERB AND ITS SUBJECT. 

The subject of the verb is either a noun or a pronoun, and is 
ascertained by asking Who ? with the aid of the verb. In the 
sentence, la philosophie triomphe de tous les maux, philosophy 
triumphs over all evils, the question, Who triumphs ? will give 
the answer — philosophy; and this noun is therefore the subject. 
The rule which directs the form of the verb in this relation is 
simply this : 

The verb agrees with its subject in number and person. 

Ex. La religion veille sur les crimes secrets, les lois veillent sur 
les crimes publics, religion guards against secret crimes, 
the laws against public crimes. 

When a verb has two or more subjects it is put in the 



15S OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

plural, provided the subjects are not either synonymous or 
finally summed up in oue as the most important. 

Ex. Lui et elle viendront a la campagne avec nous, he and she 

will come with us to the country. 
But: 

Son courage, son intrepldite, etonnait tons, his courage, 

his intrepidity, amazed all. 
Une parole, un sourire, un seul regard suffit, a word, a 
smile, a single look is enough. 
When a verb has several subjects of different persons, the 
so-called rule of grammatical precedence applies, i. e., the first 
person prevails over the second, and the second over the third. 
Ex. Vous el i/">i nous sommes contents de noire sort, you and 
I are satisfied with our fate 
Vous >t lui vous saves la chose, you and he know the 
thing. 
When a verb has several Bubjects connected by tra, or, the 

verb will be in the singular, when the nouns exclude one 
another, and in the plural, when they are represented as acting 
both, though alternately. 

K\. I 'est ( , 'i a dit r</n, it is Cicero 

or 1 temostheoes who baa said so. 

mart eoni i . time or death are 

our remed 
When the two subjects an different persons, the \crl> must 
always be in the plural. 

K\. Cest lui >>ii moi qui devrons U /aire, it is be or I who 
will have to do it. 
I ■/ die, you or she are mis- 

taken. 

cue rule applies to several subjects connected by >"', 
• be verb will be in the singular if 
the two nouns exclude each other, and in the plural when they 
are juinl of the verb. 



VERBS. 159 

Ex. Ni Vun ni V autre rCest mon pere, neither of the two is 
my father. 
Ni la douceur ni la force ne Vebranlerent, neither gentle- 
ness nor violence moved him. 
When the two subjects are different persons, the verb must 
here also be in the plural. 

Ex. Ni lui ni moi ne so?nmes coupables, neither he nor I are 

guilty. 
The verb etre placed between two nouns of different number, 
is always put in the plural, but if the first should be in the 
singular, it requires the addition of ce. 

Ex. Ses enfants sont la seule consolation qui lui reste, her 
children are the only comfort that remains to her. 
Son seul orgueil ce sont ces enfants, his only pride are his 
children. 
When the subject of a verb is un, one, followed by a genitive 
plural, the verb is singular, when it refers distinctly to un, and 
plural, when it refers in like manner to the plural. The mean- 
ing of the sentence alone determines, therefore, the form of the 
verb. 

Ex. Eat-ce un des soldats qui a fait cela ? Is it one of the 
soldiers who has done this ? 
Est-ce un des soldats qui se sont si bien battus ? Is this 
one of the soldiers who have fought so well ? 
Plus d\in, more than one, is always followed by the singular, 
in spite of its plural meaning, unless it should be repeated. 
Ex. Plus d'un ami m'en avait averti, more than one friend 
had warned me. 



Exercise. 
Your father and mother have promised to take tea with us to-nighc, 
will you and your sister do ns the favor to come with them ? Youth 
and inexperience expose us to many mistakes and consequently to 



1G0 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

much suffering. The merchant, the workman, the priest, the soldier, 
are all alike members of the State. A single word, a sigh, a glance 
may betray you. When you speak of such a sacrifice, you must not 
forget that your interest, your honor, God, demands it of you, and you 
ought not to hesitate. Into whatever part of the known earth the 
tempest or the wrath of some hostile god may have thrown him, I 
shall know how to rescue him from it. It is thou or I who has done 
this — who shall decide between us? Either the kiug himself or his 
minister will be held responsible for this fearful outrage against law 
and justice ; but the process will be so tedious, that neither you nor 
I will probably see the end of it. When I left the prison, my clothes, 
my papers, every thing was returned to me, and I found that all was 
in perfect order. This is one of the tilings I valued least, and yet it is 
also one of the things that have most contributed to my happiness. 



When a collective noun is the subject of a verb, its agree- 
pende upon the precise nature of the collective, and the 

. g rul< a mosl 1"- 
\\ ben the collective noun consists of a single word, the verb 

with it in form, without regard to its meaning. 
Ex, /-- comiti </•••>■ fina* truit, the finance commit- 

tee has been instructed. 
Le peuple Ca >i< idt /■■"■ acclamation, the people have 
decided it by acclamation. 

When the collective noun is followed by dt with another 
noun, the verb will agree "itli that pari of it to which it lias 
more sj i nee. 

Ex. /. ' ; iparl ■' . nondt m t'en toucit pa*, the majority of 
the world does not mind it. 

"/</ Jit celaf a number of people have 

said 

Grammarians gen between collective! 

general, which designate the totality of persons or things 

of. a- an army, n p< fl< ■ t, and collectiv< - pai t- 

itive, which d< nly a partial , an indefinite 



VERlS. 101 

(but .ifct the total) number of such persons or things, as a 
majority, a number, a crowd. The former are invariably 
accompanied by the definite article or an adjective, which 
points them out as collectives general, while the latter are only 
preceded by the indefinite article, with the exception of la 
plupart, the majority. In this connection the following rule 
applies : 

Verbs agree with the first word of collectives general, and 
with the second of collectives partitive. 

Ex. La pluralite des moxtres n'est pas bonne, the majority of 
masters are not good. 
La plupart des a,nimaux ont plus d'agiliti que Vhomme, 
most animals have more agility than man. 
It must not be overlooked, however, that some collectives 
may be used in both senses, as general and as partitive, but 
they will always indicate this by the article which precedes 
them. 

Ex. line bande de voleurs ont pille le village, a band of robbers 
have plundered the village. 
La bande de voleurs, qui Va fait, a disparu, the band of 
robbers who did it has disappeared. 
Adverbs of quantity, followed by a plural, determine the 
number of the verb by precisely the same rule. 

Ex. Beuucoup d'eux jouent au lieu d'etudier, many of them 
play instead of studying. 
Ce peu de mots suffit pour ranimer Varmee, these few 
words sufficed to encourage the army. 



Exercise. 

By the valor of Bichard and those knights who emulated his braveiy, 
the army of the Infidels was entirely destroyed, and the road to Jerusa- 
lem was open. They quote a number of words spoken by Spartan 
women, that show remarkable courage and strength. I cannot think 



162 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

that the majority of members can be so corrupt as to agree to such a 
measure, -which will only benefit themselves and cost the country 
large sums. The majority of men remember much better the services 
they have rendered than those they have received from others. Few 
princes, in history, have earned the same character of kindness as 
Henry IV., and yet he deserved it perhaps less than most of his ances- 
tors. A troop of mountaineers held possession of the pass, and 
although a perfect hail of balls fell upon them, they stood their 
ground. A number of men live from day to day as if they were im- 
mortal, and apparently never think of the world to come. How many 
persona have bought tickets in the lottery with the hope of obtaining 
eome large prize, and how few have ever seen their hopes realized! 
The Committee, it is mid, cannot agree, and the matter will bo 

r. ported back to the ft 



PLACE OF THE SUBJECT. 

The legitimate place of the subject of a verb is before it, 

• in questions, which are expressed by placing it after the 

verb. It baa already been Biated that, it' the Bubject of a qucs- 

tion is a oonn, it is placed a! the head of the sentence, and then 

i-i peated in the form of the proper pronoun after the verb. 

■ Hunt la >/■■ \fanti t Is 

this woman really the mother of these children I 

. thai if tip tion is a pronoun, it must be 

i by a hyphen \<> the verb, and avoid the hiatus by the 

insertion of t, and the immediate succession of two mute e*a by 

Brat 

Ex, .1 • , ■ ■ lit >n une lelU cko ■ : Baa Bnch a thing ever 

he. 11 

• r, even if I were t«> he 
«hi\ en away, 1 "ill speak. 

The manna* in which the French exp ress an emphatic r..u- 
ditiiin. like thai <>f the lasl example, by placing the pronouns 
after, the w , has been hilly explained 

uu'i - inns. 



verbs. 11;?, 

The subject is, however, occasionally p.iced after the verb 
for special purposes, of which the following are the principal 
instances : 

Incidental sentences, showing that the words of another are 
quoted, are formed by placing the subject after the verb. 

Ex. Tous les homines sont fous, a dit Boileau, all men are 
mad, Boileau has said. 
Eh bien, repeta-t-il, pourquoi ne venez-vous pas ? Well, 
he repeated, why don't you come ? 

After certain adverbs, taken in an idiomatic sense, like ad- 
verbs of place, of manner or conclusion, which, for that purpose, 
are placed at the head of the sentence, the subject is placed after 
the verb. 

Ex. lei repose la Sainte Cecile, here lies St. Cecilia. 

Ainsi se termina cette fdcheuse affaire, thus ended this dis 

agreeable business. 
En vain le lui a-t-on offer t deux/ois, in vain they have 
offered it to him twice. 

Sentences expressive of a strong wish employ for that pur- 
pose the subjunctive mood, followed by the subject. 

Ex. Puissent tons les peuples aimer la paix ! Oh that all 
nations would love peace ! 

In relative constructions, as has been stated under the head 
of relative pronouns, the subject follows the verb, because the 
verb is obliged to follow immediately the relative pronoun. 
Ex. Les conseils que nous donnent nos amis, the advice our 
friends give us. 
Je ferai ce que m'a dit votre frere, I shall do what your 
brother told me. 

It must be borne in mind here, that when the verb is mono- 
syllabic, or the construction is in any manner likely to become 
involved, as in negative questions, the simple interrogative form 



164 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

is not used in French, but the question is asked by means of 
est-ce que ? 
Ex. Est-ce que je dors ou est-ce que je rem t Am I asleep or 
dreaming ? 
Estrce que V agent ne Vaurait pas fait ? Could not the agent 
have done it ? 



Exercise. 

Even if Caesar had not passed the Rubicon, he would probably have 
en led as he did, for his ambition would have led him to the same 
measures, although it might have been by a different way. Per- 
haps the doctor was not at home, when your Bervant was there, or 
perhaps he was fast asleep and did not hear the bell. In vain did we 
try to shake his resolution : lie was linn, and finally asked us not to 
to him any more about it : thus ended our interview. We hear 

which those give us who know how to flatter oar 

IS, but we shut our ears to thai which our true friends s .. 

to us. Does Buch mi answer offend you, or have you sufficient courage 
to hear the truth 1 Will business be better next winter? Perhaps it 
will i 1 have laid in a large stock of merchandise, and 

.■ to buy even more. If 1 can obtain more money. His last 
words wire: Ma;, in j i ur enterprise; yon \\ ; il always 

have my beat wish.- for youi i i u will do, he said, what 

your lather, whose memory yon cannol honor too much, has told you, 
and Mm will never beat fault. It Is said he discovered byanacd- 
.. hat the greatest pi •■ ith all their learning and their 

res arch, had not found out. 



Tin: ii.ack Off i J I k 01 

The legittmal the object of the verbis after it, when 

in ..r i verb; ami immediately before it. when it is a 

pronoun. Thi on the place of personal pronouns, 

when they are . i i r •■« t or indirect objects of the verb, mnst here, 

be borne in mind. 

Ex. /.' 

old age, for yon also will he old. 



VERBS. 165 

La religion seule peat /aire supporter de telles in/or tunes, 
religion alone can make us bear such misfortunes. 

Les yeux de Vamitie se trompent rarement, the eyes of 
friendship are rarely deceived. 

Active Verbs alone have a direct object, and only one ; if 
they have a second object, that can only be an indirect one. 
Hence, when an active verb has for its direct object a verb, the 
noun or pronoun, which is also connected with it, must neces- 
sarily be an indirect object. 

Ex. Je lui ai entendu chanter cela souvent, I have often heard 

him sing that. 
Chanter,here, is the direct object, consequently Him must be 
translated by lui. 

II a donne le meilleur avis a cet homme, he has given this 
man the best advice. 

Passive Verbs have an indirect object by means of the pre- 
positions de or par ; the former is used when the action of the 
verb is of a moral or mental nature, the latter, when it applies 
to physical agencies. 

Ex. Elle est aimee de tout le monde, she is beloved by every- 
body. 
H a ete vaincu par un nombre superieur, he has been 
beaten by superior numbers. 

Neuter Verbs have no object at all, when they express a 
mere state or condition, although they may be followed by a 
word which has the appearance of an object, whilst it is in 
reality but a repetition of their own meaning. 

Ex. Malgre les soins des medecins elle languit toujour s, in 
spite of the care of the physicians she is still lan- 
guishing. 
Dormir le sommeil des justes, to sleep the sleep of the 
just. 



166 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

Otbe) neuter verbs have an indirect object, with which they 
are connected by different prepositions. 

Ex. Les exces de tous les genres nuisent a la sanlc, excess of 
every kind is injurious to health. 
II ne faut jamais medire de son voisin, we must never 
speak ill of our neighbor. 
Pronominal verbs have for their object the personal pronoun 
with which they are connected. This may be the direct or the 
indirect object, a difference which does not appear in the infin- 
itive, where all such verbs have se, but in the conjugation. 
Ex. JEst-ce quHl s'esi iearti Ju chemin droit P (aeons.) Ila.s be 
lost the right road? 
On i touvent trap turd, (dat.) We reproach our- 

selves often too late. 

■ "mil verba bave only an indii t object. 

Ex. Ii is aider, it is proper fbt 

your brother to assist you. 
The only case in which the object is placed before its wrl> is 
in questions, when the object is connected with an interrogative 
pronoun or adverb of quantity. 

Ex. Qut ' I '■ voulez-vous gueje vou* d<>m,r f What l><;<>k <lo 
\<>ii want me to give you I 
| • ' ' How many of 

these children go to your bcI 

If, in any Other 19886, nnpha-is or any other motive should 

induce us to place the object before the verb, it must be 

repeated in it- proper place with the verb, as a personal 
pronoun. 

Ex. That I knew before yon told me of \t,cela,jt feasant* 

onntt i/ii' rous n ' 

TbeM pictures I know, those 1 have never seen before, 
U% connais, quant a ceux-ia, jc he let 

•int. 



167 



When two verbs have one and the same direct object, it is 
frequently — though not necessarily — placed after the first verb 
and repeated in the form of a pronoun with the second. 

Ex. Les voleurs pillerent et brulerent la maison, the robbers 
plundered and burnt the house. 
J'ai ecrit la lettre et je Vai envoy ee, I have written and 
sent the letter. 



Exercise. 



He has recommended this young man to study at some German 
university, because they teach students there to speak Latin. How 
much money did you give him 1 I gave your friend all I had about 
me, which was not much, but I promised him more, if he should want 
it. Those men I once saw on a steamboat in the United States, but I 
have never seen them again since. He struck and broke the pitcher, 
whilst he was so much excited that he did not know what he was 
doing. The first operation of the kind was made on Louis XIV. by a 
celebrated surgeon, whose fame has come down to our day. An 
ignorant and proud young man is despised by all who know him, and 
is rarely beloved even by his nearest friends. Gunpowder was invented 
iu Germany by a shoemaker, if we may believe the legend, and shells 
by a bishop of the same country. When I asked him if he was happy 
now, he replied very gruffly : That you know as well as I ; I shall give 
you no answer. 



THE TENSES AND MOODS OF THE VERB. 

I. THE INFINITIVE. 

The Infinitive, giving simply the meaning of the verb, is to 
all intents and purposes a noun, which names the verb. Its 
general nature is the same as in English, except that it is not 
accompanied in French by a particle, corresponding to the 
English To. The latter is required in English to mark words, 
which are otherwise perfectly like nouns, as verbs, — like The 
love and To love, The sleep and To sleep. In French, verbs 



16S ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

having a peculiar form need no such mark of distinction, and 
hence the English to is translated only when it has the sig- 
nification of In order to, or a similar one. 

Ex. He would like to please you in every thing, il voudrait 
vous plaire en tout. 
He did it to please yon, il Va fait pour vous plaire. 

The infinitive is so truly a noun, as the name of the verb, 
that it may be used with the definite and indefinite article. 
Ex. Ce ritst pas la vwrt que je crains, Jest It mourir, it is 
not death I fear, it is dying. 
La paix devieni necessairc, comme le manger et le boire, 
peace becomes necessary, like eating and drinking. 

There are, however, peculiar purposes for which the infinitive 
is used in French differently from the English usage, of which 
the following cases are the moat important, 

The infinitive, Bimply, IB OSed alter all verbs of motion, instead 

of the English conjunction And or the parti. 'le To. 

Ex 1 wenl to Bee him, but he uh-> cot at home, fallai U voir, 

. lui. 

Go and look for the doctor, wherever he may be, oWes 

c/nrr/ttr I' /in ill it ii. partout i-u il putt i tic. 

Tin' infinitive, simply, is also used for the second of two verbs 
following each other immediately in the same tense. 

El. 1 thought I law yOQ in that stole,/ croyau runs ran- 
dans c< magarin. 
They imagined they had lost every thing by his failure, 
\U .•>'< i dans 8a banque- 

The infinitive is used after all prepositions but one, instead of 
the participle presi nt in Englishi 

Ex. Without Baying a word he went away, mum dire mut ii 

*'(/! alia. 



VERBS. 169 

He never returned after having said farewell, il ne revint 
jamais apres avoir dit adieu. 
The preposition en alone is used with the participle present 
in the sense of By or While. 

Ex. He has succeeded only by working day and night, il n'a 
reussi qu'en travaillant jour et nuit. 
She fell asleep while reading the new novel, elle s'endor- 
mit en lisant le nouveuu roman. 

The English preposition In is not translated by en, but by a 
with the infinitive. 
Ex. Je passe mon temps a lire et a ecrire, I spend my time in 
reading and writing. 

The infinitive with de is used for a verb which is the imme- 
diate object of another verb, instead of the English participle 
present. 

Ex. Have you done reading this paper ? Avez-vvus fini de 
lire ce journal? 
She will try pleasing you better next time, elle essayera 
de vous plaire mieu.c la prochaine fois 

The English a, sometimes placed before such participles, 
remains, of course, untranslated in French. 
Ex. He has gone a-shooting to-day, il est alle cliasser aujour- 
d'hui. 
When they saw him they burst out a-laughing, quand Us 
le virent Us eclaterent de rire. 

The infinitive, simply, is used for English participles that are 
used as nouns, unless a French noun should express the same 
idea. 

Ex. That is to say : seeing is believing, Jest comme qui dira.it : 
voir Jest croire. 
1 am surprised to hear you do not like dancing, je suis 
surpris d'apprendre que vous n'aimez pas la danse. 
The infinitive, preceded by etre a, has the power of the 
passive verb in English. 



170 ON THE FAKTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. Cette maison est a loner de suite, this house is to be rented 
out at once. 
Ces pauvres orphelins sont beaueoup a plaindre, these poor 
orphans are much to be pitied. 

In placards and notices of every kind, the verb Hrt is often 
omitted. Hence a louer, or a vendre, means simply. For rent, or 
For sale, and d continue); at the end of a fragment of a story. To 
be continued. 

The infinitive is occasionally, by ellipsis, placed directly after 
adverbs interrogative. 

Ex. Comment f aire eela sans aide et sans argent? How can 
this be done without help and without money? 

The infinitive is used instead of the English participle present, 
which qualifies the direct object of a preceding verb. 

Ex. I have Been your l>n>ther painting, fax vu peindre votre 

I have also heard him Binging in a low voice, je few 

When the participle proBoul belongs t«> b verb expressing nn 
action, it i> preferable to translate it by the relative pronoun qui 
wiiii the proper : 

Ex. I have net her walking La the street,,/ ' ■',• qui 

Tli.v have detected him hiding the stolen money, Us Vont 

■I BOii. 

The Bngtiah participle present, used as a noun, may be 

accompanied by a i- ire pronoun, as in the phrase, M\ 

g so. This is utterly out of the question, and expressions of 
this kind must be entirely changed, so as to I"- in conformity 
a itfa the rales above given, 

Ex. The reason of my saying bo was this, /■/ raison pourquoi 

je Cat dit /ill r,ri. 

refusing to work, thai docs not matter, quant 



171 



The English participle present, used as a noun, may also 
enter into the composition of compound nouns. This is im- 
possible in French, and the participle must be rendered by a 
noun or a verb in the infinitive. 

Ex. Where can I find the dancing-master ? Ou pourrais-je 
trouver le maitre de dame? 
I have mislaid my writing-paper, fai deplace mon papier 
a ecrire. 

It must not be forgotten that the participle present cannot, as 
in English, be used with the verb etre, but that, instead, the 
simple verb is employed. 
Ex. He was reading when I saw him, il limit quandje le vis. 
The table at which I was sitting was a round one, la table 
oibjefus assis, etait ronde. 



Exercise. 



I thought I knew every thing until I became his pupil, and then I 
found I had only commenced learning. He did it for the purpose oi 
pleasing me, but he did not succeed, for I had expected hearing him 
sing, and he would not do that. Eating, drinking and sleeping is all 
she has been doing this week, for she is too weak still for walking, or 
even for riding out. He has gone and paid all his debts with the 
money you gave him for having saved your plate during the fire. 
This little girl took great pains in knitting for her grandmother, but 
she did not understand sewing it up, and it all resulted in nothing. If 
you find any difficulty in doing this for me, you must not give your- 
self any unnecessary trouble. I can easily find somebody else, who 
would like undertaking it for me. We could see the soldiers marching 
up and down the square, but we were too far to hear the music. You 
are always taking pleasure in teasing her ; but she is very gentle, and 
yesterday, while going to church, she praised you for your good 
behavior. Tou write so badly, you ought to take a good writing- 
master and practise writing every day. 



172 OX THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

II. — THE PRESENT TENSE. 

The present is used as in English to denote an action which 
i- now <xoino; on, or one which is immediately to follow or for 
which preparations are being made. 

Ex. Dans ce moment je suis encore incertain, at this moment 
I am yet undecided. 
Voust snvez queje vats en France avec mon pere, you know 
I am jjoing to France with my father. 
But, when the futnre is not of this immediate nature, the 
future must be used in French for the English present. 

Ex. I mil tell him so, when 1 aee him, je le lui dirai quand 

je le verrai. 
The present ie used instead of the English future after the 
inction at, if, and is the only tense, besides the imperfect, 
which can be used after 

Ex. I will pay him well if he will do it,je A payerai bien $*U 

I, fait. 
The pre*en1 is ased in historical writing or in oratorical and 
very animated Btyle, instead of the pasl tense, for the purpose 
ater liveliness and emph 

ttent sur Vennemi, 
advances; his troops throw themselves upon the 
my. 
/. malheureux! II *•<"< fenfuir, il est troptardf The 
unhappy man ! Be wants to Bee ; it ia too late ! 

a which express a futun — like when, while, as 
• , .and others, which express a pasl like after, 
. - are frequently used in English with the presont 
i .h is more precise in these cases and requires 
lively the past or the future after them. 
Ex. When he comes back, be will dine al once, quand il ren- 
in < . i >'''■ 



VERBS. 173 

I will tell him as soon as I see him,/*? le lui dirai aussi- 

tot que je le verrui. 
He always sleeps after he dines, il dort toujours apres 

avoir dine. 

Exercise. 
He loves peace, lie blames all extremes, and enjoys the happy 
changes which take place under his benevolent rale. My friends are 
all ready ; the boat is at the landing ; let us bid farewell, and we will 
start as soon as you have done weeping. I shall certainly punish him 
if he does it again, for it is a bad habit, which must be overcome at 
once or it becomes his master. Will you be very glad when she be 
comes your brother's wife ? I do not know yet, for I have never seen 
her ; but I will tell you frankly how I like her after I have made her 
acquaintance. Do not leave this place till he tells you to do so ; it is 
very important that somebody should be here to receive visitors in 
his absence. You can take a walk along the shore while I am re- 
maining by the boat to see that nobody steals the oars and our 
clothes. If you will allow me to go away for a few minutes, I shall 
be very much obliged to you. It is not, necessary for you to coma 
back till I am ready to accompany you. 



III. THE PAST TENSES. 

The French verb has three past tenses, which represent the 
meaning of the English two past tenses; hence, there arises 
some difficulty in knowing exactly which of the three to employ. 
Fortunately, the rules in French are very positive, and at the 
same time very clear, so that very little attention suffices to 
acquire the tact necessary for their use. Of these three tenses, 
two are simple — the imperfect and the preterit definite — and 
one is compound, the preterit indefinite. 

The Imperfect has its name from the fact that it refers to a 
past action, the time of which is purposely left undecided in 
itself, imperfect, but measured only by another action, begin- 
ning or ending at the same time. 

Ex. J pensais a vous quand vous etes entre, I was thinking 
of you when you came in. 



174 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTEXCE. 

Elle dormait profondiment, quand je cessai de lire, she 
slept profoundly when I stopped reading. 
It is generally, though not necessarily, expressed in English 
by the verb To be, with the participle present. 

Its principal purposes are to express an action, which is 
continued for a long time, and this is generally expressed iu 
English by I was, with the participle present. 

Ex. I was living ten years in that house, je vivais dix ans 
dans cette maison. 
1 loved her so much, when she was with us! Je 1'aimais 
taut quand elle 6ta.it urn- nous/ 
Or an action frequently repeated, and this is generally expressed 
by I u- 

Ex. Formerly I osed to read very little, autrefois je ne lisaia 

They used t<> come to see us every Sunday, Us venaient 
Dimanchta. 
The imperii B, thirdly, any past action, which is 

Bigoated definitely by any expression of time. 
Ex. fl teurs, we were victorious (so Gar). 

i, ir itait un des plus grandu hommes, Ceesar was one 
of the greatesl men. 

■ ■ /./. 1 did net know thai i bofore). 
. as has already been Btated, the only tense 
which can I r '', if. tor anj English tense except the 

Ex. \\ be w< :■■ to come to-morrow, it would he too late, s*U 
• ' trop tard. 
I . I do it. if he should insist upon i (*, s'U 

itt bas it- name from the fact that it 
•ion, the time of which i^ well determined by 
. finition of time, and be ipsed. 



VERBS. 175 

Ex. Nous y alldmes kier, we went there yesterday. 

Cest le mhne jour oil naquit Moliere, that is the same 
day on which Moliere was born. 

The principal purposes of this tense are to express actions 
which have ended completely, and hence it is the historical 
tense of the French. 

Ex. Cette balaillefut livree en 1812, this battle was fought in 
1812. 
Cet infortune roi expia ses crimes sur V echafaud, that most 
unfortunate king expiated his crimes on the scaffold. 
It cannot, therefore, be used for actions accompanied by 
words, like This year, this week, etc., because these periods of 
time have not yet completely elapsed ; nor can it state what 
has been done to-day. 

The preterit definite is, secondly, used to express all past 
actions accompanied by a definition of time, as the date, etc. 
Ex. Je rCy arrival que le quinze Juin, I only arrived there 
the fifteenth of June. 
II me le dit unjour que nous fumes ensemble, he told me 
so one day when we were together. 

The Preterit Indefinite has its name from the fact that it 
refers to a past action, the time of which is not yet com- 
pletely elapsed, although the action itself has come to an end- 
Hence, this is the tense which expresses, all actions accom- 
panied by words like This year, this month, to-day, etc. 

Ex. L'avez-vous rencontree ce matin ? Did you meet her this 
morning ? 
tPai eu la fievre deux fois cette annee, I had the fever twice 
this year. 

It is used, secondly, to express past actions, the effects ol 
which have not yet entirely passed away, or are at least repre 
sented as still continuino-. 



176 OX THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. Auez-votts conclu voire marchi uvec cet komme? Did you 
close your bargain with this man ? 

Les Grecs nous ont donne les Beaux Arts, the Greeks 
Lave given us the Fine Arts. 
Hence, past tenses accompanied by adverbs, like Always, 
often, never, etc., will be expressed by the preterit indefinite, 
because these adverbs extend the action indefinitely. 

Ex. tPai toujour* craint qu'il n y en suit uiusi, I always feared it 
11 light be SO. 
II riajam m voulu nous avouer son crime, he never would 
acknowledge his crime. 



Exercise. 



W'liilr-t we were at dinner, a band of musicians came into the room , 

they played for Beveral hoars, until tin- time for the evening concert, 

when they left the hotel Louis XL was a wise, bat a wicked king ; 

oodone; he suffered all his life 

from jealousy and (ear of being murdered. We used to sit on that 

1m neb and look upon the lake every evening last Bummer; we always 

■,'. :i u any other in this neighborhoodL Tin' 

eighteenth of June ; it lasted for ten hours ; 

the Gate • ■! the conflict changed, and finally our troops 

; a brillianl victory. Did you see him this morning going to 

• imbler with its fresh and pure water tor his 

in to-day, I'Ut I saw him yesterday 

irejAslted the beautiful castle at Pau, they showed 

room, an«l the servant said, with an air of great solemnity; 

1 1 . 1 1 ry IV was born I Wealways hoped he would come 

„„,l ; i him. but whilst "■• were ezpecting him 

to this country late lust 
r to the littk (arm of bis son In- 
s playii 
I called her husband : he 
thai time we have not played 
a- long as I 
• found thai : 



VERBS. 177 

was no limit to his extravagance, he ceased supplying him with 
money. If I were in his place, I would not think of it any more ; 
the money is lost, and it is of no avail to regret such losses. If it 
should be found again, even that would not make much difference, 
for the money was not his. When we reached the gate of the city, 
which used to he open during the whole night, we found it shut, to 
our surprise ; and as the watchman was sleeping, we did not rouse him 
for half an hour, during which we stood in the rain, wet and 
shivering. 



COMPOUND PAST TENSES. 

The Pluperfect, formed of the imperfect of auxiliary verbs 
with the participle past, is used in precisely the same manner 
as the imperfect itself, only with regard to a past action, which 
precedes another past action. 

Ex. tPavais dejeune, quand vous vintes me demander, I had 
breakfasted when yon came for me. 

The action of breakfasting, here, is represented not only as 
past in itself, but as past previously to the other past action of 
your coming. This second action, however, need not be 
specially expressed ; it may be represented by a definition of 
time. 

Ex. II avail fini son ouvrage a minuit, he had finished his 
work at midnight. 

The pluperfect is employed, also, like the imperfect, for 
actions accompanied in English by t ^e words Used to. 

Ex. I used to read as soon as I had dined, je lisais aussitot 
que f avals dine. 

It is, likewise, employed after si, if, because that conjunction 
cannot be used with any other past tense but the imperfect, and 
the pluperfect contains the imperfect of the auxiliary verbs. 

Ex. S'il n J a.vait pas fait cela, il aurait ete perdu, if he had 
not done that he would have been lost. 



ITS OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Modern writers are disposed occasionally to substitute the 
subjunctive of the preterit anterior for the pluperfect, but it 
remains to be seen whether this elegant though bold form of ex- 
pression will be adopted by standard authors. 

Ex. S'il cut ete le chef, il y aura it peut-itre rt medie, if he had 
been the commander, he might have mended it. 

The Preterit Anterior, formed of the preterit definite of 
auxiliary verbs with the participle past, partakes again of the 
nature of the simple preterit and expresses a past action, which 
is immediate); followed by another past action, so that it is 
fully classed and marked as Bach by the second action, to which 
il is anterior. 

Ex. Quand feus reconnu mon erreur, fen fus honteux, when 
I had seen my trior. J was ashamed of it 

It will, likewise, be used whenever the time of the past 
, is determined \>\ a definition of time, or words like bim- 

'■i Ir billet de ma soeur, I bad Boon read mv 
i :>-. 

Veut renversi en hu instant, having 
once seised him. be bad overthrown him in an instant, 
. it imi-t t» i such conjunction! 

press immediate, definite action, as quand, when ; aussittt que, 

m the time that, etc 
,i m'en allai, as soon as 1 bad 
finished it. I wenl away. 

. . - • :. BS 1 had 

aim. 

i Indefinite, mentioned by some 
. formed from the preterit indefinite <>f the 
auxin. ii the partici| such rare occurrence 

that it h:>-' not been specially mentioned. Foreigners do better to 
avoid ; or the Infinitive U 

able in all c 



VERBS. 179 

Ex. Je Vai vu apres que j'ai eu deje&ne ce matin, I saw liim 

after I had breakfasted this morning. 
Or, Je Vai vu apres inon deje-dner ce matin. 



Exercise. 



As soon as I had heard of your misfortune, I took all the necessary 
measures to come to your aid ; and when I had told my wife of my 
intentions, I went to the depot and took the cars. He was not satis- 
fied with the picture, but, after he had changed the sketch several 
times, he gave it up in despair. We only stopped when we had 
walked half-way, because we saw that we would not have arrived 
there before sunset, even if we had started before noon. When he 
had taken a hearty meal, at dinner or at supper, he used to sleep ; and 
that habit injured his health so much, that he died before he had 
reached the age of sixty. It was a great disappointment to the crowd 
of curious people, who had gone to see the review : when they reached 
the place they found that they had come too late, and that the troops 
had all returned to the barracks. When I was the first time in 
Rome, nothing had made a greater impression upon me than the 
Pope and the ceremonies of the Roman Church : when I was there 
last year, the charm had lost its power, for I had become another 
man. As soon as the matter had been reported to the police, they 
had gone to work to find out the thieves ; and hence, while you had as 
yet heard nothing of the robbery, the criminals were already in 
prison. 



V. FUTURE AND CONDITIONAL. 



The Future simply expresses an action which is still to take 
place, as in English, and represents, therefore, the English 
expression : I am going to — occasionally. 

Ex. JVos corps resusciteront au jour dernier, our bodies will 
arise on the last day. 
II ne vous reconnaitra pas sous ce decfuisement, he will 
not recognize you in that disguise. 
It is employed als<! as a mild form of the imperative. 



180 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. Vans remercierez ce monsieur qui a tan* fait pour vous, 
you will thank that gentleman, who has done so much 
for you. 
It is occasionally placed at the head of a sentence, before the 
subject, to convey a peculiar emphasis urged with doubt. 

Ex. Croira qui voudra ce conte, moije ne le peux pas, let those 

who choose, believe this story, I cannot. 
The Future Anterior, formed of the future of the auxiliary 
verb with the participle past, expresses a future action which 
will precede another future action. 

Ex. Qtumd ft xemi r6iabli,firai vous voir, when I am well 
again, I will come and see yon. 
J'tiurui tout /ait t quand vous rentrerez, 1 shall have done 
every thing, when yon come hack. 
It has been mentioned already with the remarks on the 
. that the future must in French be used instead of the 
English present, after conjunctions which have a future mean- 
Ex, ./• '• lui dirai aussitdt gwje h verrai, I will tell him so, 
as soon as I Bee him. 

// | qu'il mini iU eli,- iimis, he 

will certainly come after he has been at our house. 
It must be borne In mind, here, thai the English verba Will 
nnd Shrill arc used, now as Independent verbs ami now as aux- 
iliaries, to fam the future. In the latter case, the; are, of coarse, 
simply translated by the French future; in the former case they 
be rendered by tie' verbs voutoir and d 
!!.• will come 

A.-k aim if lie will come <>r not, Vi nnir 

It shall !"• t 

tU a r. 

Shall it be done /"ire 



VEEBS. 181 



Exercise. 



I beg you, do what you can to keep him from going away now, for, 
if he does so, he will surely lose the best opportunity he has ever had 
of distinguishing himself. Let those who choose believe the historians 
who give this account of the great Alexander ; they give us nothing 
but fictions. What will he do if he lose his place ? he has no fortune 
and he will have to work for his living. When the doctor Ipft us he 
said to the nurse, You will give her her medicine every two hours ; 
and you will watch her sleep carefully, so that she is not disturbed by 
any noise. If she sleeps through the night, she will escape the danger, 
and her life is saved. 1 had no money about me, and told him : I will 
pay your bill when you bring it to my house ; I shall be at home after 
I have dined at the Club, and I shall not leave the house again until 
to-morrow. He will have accomplished a great deed if he succeeds in 
this enterprise ; it will be recorded in history as one of the most 
daring things that have ever been undertaken by man. 



The Conditional expresses an action dependent on a con- 
dition. 

Ex. JVous se?ions bien contents si nous en avions autant, we 

would be well pleased if we had as much. 
This condition, however, is not always expressed by si, if, or 
at all, but may be understood. 

Ex. Dites-lui que je le vermis avec plaisir, mais que je suis 
malade, tell him 1 would see him with pleasure, but 
that I am sick. 
Je serais fache de le trouver malade, I should be sorry to 

find him sick. 
Pourriez-vous le croire coupable d'un tel forfait ? Could 
you think him guilty of such a crime ? 
The Conditional Anterior, formed of the conditional of the 
auxiliary verb and the participle past, expresses an action thus 
dependent, and preceding a condition. 

Ex. iTaurais fini si Von ne in!avait interrompu, I would have 
finished, if I had not been interrupted. 



182 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

Que serait-il arrive s'il detail pas venu ? "What would 
have happened if he had not come ? 
Instead of this form of the past conditional, French authors 
frequently employ the subjunctive of the past, with the par- 
ticiple past, but the use of this form belongs more to elevated 
than to conversational style. 

Ex. &>l m'e&t era, il ■ me fentreprise, if he had 

believed me, he would have abandoned the enter- 
prise. 
The French conditional can never be used, as in English, after 
si, if, but in its place the imperfect must be employed. 
Ex If he Bhould say yes, I would be delighted, s'il tUtait que 






I would prefer thai you should read the letter yourself; it was 

addressed to you, nnd If 1 were to re:.d it. your IYi. ml might 1m' dis- 

i iid you do if he wi on alone In a dark 

room, after havin ry I would not be much 

. for I have ii l my paiv.n - 

I would have told you bo before, if 
you l; . : ;e, but you . that you would not have 

paid an] attention to my words, Ifl had then spoken to yon. Would 
him of such vices, who had the appearance 
moat vinoons and honorable man f [am sure thai [would never 
have ly had told me bo ; but now, naving seen it 

with : any longer. If 1 could 

r for a few minut* - I would b< for 1 have d ■• 

hear for two years, and i: won 

. iiry without Baying her. 



VI. TltK IMl'i RAT1VE ' 



The Tmper the meaning of the verb in the 

in. mm ; ling, entreating <>i permitting. 



VEEBS. 183 

Ex. Allez de suite chercher le medecin, go immediately for the 
doctor. 
Veuillcz agreer mes kommages, accept my respects. 
Faites ce que vous voudrez, il importe peu, do what you 
like, it matters little. 
The French imperative expresses no pronoun as nominative, 
as is sometimes done in English. 

Ex. Let us be prudent and we shall escape, soy oris sages et 

nous en eckapperons. 
The first person singular is never used, because man does not 
command himself in an audible tone ; he wills, and without con- 
veying his will to himself, he acts. On the stage, however, and 
in poetry, where his thoughts are clad in words, the first person 
plural is used in monologues. 

Ex. Allans, vaincons nos passions ! Up, let me overcome my 

passions. 
The third person of the imperative is borrowed from the 
subjunctive of the present, and hence is always preceded by the 
conjunction que, as the first part of the sentence, je veux, and 
the like, is understood. 

Ex. Qu'il s'en aille de suite ou je le chasserai, let him go 
away instantly or I shall drive him off. 
QuHls ne le /assent plus s 7 il veulent que je leur pardonne, 
let them not do it again, if they wish to be forgiven. 



VII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The Subjunctive mood has its name from the fact that in form 
and in meaning it is always " subjoined," subordinate to another 
idea ; for it never expresses any thing, that is, any positive action, 
like the indicative, but something that maj be, a contingent 
action. Now, what is contingent, depends upon something 
else, and this is the principal part of the proposition, of which 



184 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

the verb in the subjunctive forms the subordinate part. The 
two parts of the proposition must, like any two verbs, which 
express distinct ideas and yet are brought into connection with 
each other, be united by the conjunction que; and hence it 
comes that the subjunctive is never found in French unaccom- 
panied by a conjunction. It would, however, be a grave error 
to imagine that this conjunction governs the subjunctive : it is 
the meaning given to the verb alone, which determines whether 
it is to be used in the indicative or subjunctive mood, and the 
same conjunction may, therefore, be followed by either. 

Ex. Je doute <j<t'il soit venu aujourcFkui, I doubt whether he 
came to-day. 

",! est venu avjourcCkui, I know he did come 

to-day. 

The general rule for the ose of the Bubjunctive mood is 

amply, that it must 1"- employed whenever the meaning of the 

verb ia not positive but contingent, and consequently dependent 

on another part of the proposition. 

The tense of the Bubjunctive t>> be used is determined by the 

9 | ience of rena a, which has reference to 

the manner in which the tenses follow each other in the two 

parts of the proposition. The principal part will contain the 

indicative, which has five tenses; the subordinate part, the 

subjunctive, which has only two tenses, the present and the 

•y of precisely attributing the latter two 

b former five. The rule i- this: The present and future 

of tie in stive "i' the present; 

and the conditional of the indicative are 

the Bubjunctive of the | 

j , Yen have t>> il<> it. 

[1 i will have to do it. 

i You had to do it. 

l . ( 

I JToa have had to do it, 

.1.1 b*Tf tO dO It 



VEEBS. 185 

The general principle which determines the use of the sub- 
junctive mood produces the following practical results : 

1. Verbs expressive of a wish, from the gentlest desire to the 
positive command, and verbs expressive of fear or doubt, are 
followed by the subjunctive, because whatever is wished, 
ordered, feared or doubted is not represented as actually being 
the case, but only as a thing that may or may not be, according 
as the wish, fear or doubt is realized or not. 

Ex. Tu veux qu'en la faveur on croie V impossible, thou wilt 

have us believe the impossible for thy sake. 
J' at lends lous les moments qu'il vienne, I expect him to 

come any moment. 
II avait peur que je ne m'en ullasse de suite, he was afraid 

I would go away at once. 
Doutes-vous qu'il y ait un Dieu ? Do you doubt that 

there is a God ? 

E\*en some of these verbs, however, may be followed by the 
indicative, as e. g., the verbs, arreter, to enact, commander, to 
command, exiger, to require, etc., when they are used in laws of 
the country or orders of the Government, because then they 
admit of no contingency, but state what must positively be 
done. 

Ex. Arrete que la cour s'assemblera demain, it is enacted that 
the court will meet to-morrow. 

2. Verbs expressive of what exists only in our mind, as pen- 
ser, to think, soutenir, to maintain, soupconner, to suspect, 
esperer, to hope, parier, to bet, s'imaginer, to imagine, and all 
with similar meaning, are followed by the subjunctive, because 
what we only think, imagine, suspect, etc., is likewise represented 
not as actual but only as possible. 

Ex. Pensez-vous qu'il soil deja sorti ? Do you think he has 
already gone ou' * 



L86 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Us s'ijnaginent que tons soient mediants comme eux, they 

fancy everybody is as wicked as they. 
Je ne crois pas qiCil Va.it dit, I do not think he said so. 

But, whenever these same verbs are employed to state our 
conviction or some positive fact, they must be followed by the 
indicative. 

Ex. Je pense que vous avez appris cela bien, I think you have 
(positively) learnt this well. 
Songez qu'on nut vous perdre et ne ntgligez ricn, think 

that they want to ruin you, anil neglect nothing. 
Je cmis qu'il y a an Dim qui i/i\i a <Y, I believe that 

there is a God who has created me. 

3. Impersonal verb? which express duty, satisfaction, etc., and 
the verb itre used impersonally before adjectives of similar 
meaning; arc followed by the subjunctive. 

■ ■■ ', it is Impor- 
tant he should be informed ofil Becretly. 
// «-' po&dble q'tilli ne soit /'las j, une, it is possible she 
may be no longer yo i 

// i ' lit '■■ », it was sad slie 

should hare been left thus. 

But if these impersonal verba or the adjective after itrc have 
tive meaning, the indicative will here also be 

Ex. / ', it appears h<' did come 

after all. 
11 ■ 'est plus riche, it i> evident he is do 

longer rich. 

// ' (ten happens that 

mistakun. 

ationa, an 1 are. in accordance 



VERBS. 187 

•wilh these, followed either by the indicative or the subjunctive^ 
The principal verbs of this class are : 



Attentive que, to wait until, 
entendre, to require, 
pvetendve, to expect, 
supposer, to suppose, 
sembler, to seem (and not to be), 

attentive, to expect, 

entendre, to hear, understand, 

pretendre, to maintain, 

supposer, to admit, 

Remoter, to seem (and to be so), _ 



with the subjunctive. 



with the indicative. 



Ex. II senible que ce mat soit sans remede, it looks as if this dis- 
ease is incurable. 

It semble qu'elle a vraiment epouse cet homme, it seems sho 
has actually married that man. 

Attendez qu'il vienne et je vous presenterai, wait till he 
comes and I will introduce you. 

X 'attends qu'il est mort hier, I expect he did die yesterday. 

4. Relative superlatives, which state the highest degree of a 
quality, not as it is absolutely, but relatively to what may be, 
words of the same meaning, as premie?; principal, unique, seul, 
etc., and indefinite pronouns followed by a relative pronoun, 
require the subjunctive after them, because of the vague and 
indefinite meaning which they necessarily give to that part of 
the proposition. 

Ex. Cest la plus belle femme que faie jamais vue, she is the 

finest woman I have ever seen. 
Le scul homme qui soit plus grand que sa reputation, the 

only man who is greater than his reputation. 
Je voudrais voiv quelqu'un qui put mieux faive, I should 

like to see any one who could do better. 
II y a peu de gens qui en sachent autant, there are few 

people who know as much. 



1SS OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

But here, also, the meaning may be a positive one, and then 
the indicative is required. 

Ex. Peu de gens qui font essuye ont rcussi, few who have 
tried it have succeeded. 
J'ai vu quelqu'un qui le connait de vue, I have seen 
somebody who knows him by sight. 

5. Verbs expressive of tear, from mere apprehension to 
trembling, etc., and of denial of any kind, are not only followed 
by the verb in the subjunctive mood, but the verb must also be 
preceded by the negative particle ne. 

Ex. Ell nil qu'elle m Petit vu Ater, Bhe denies having seen 
him yesterday. 
./ era ru >'•■> tie soit venu trap tard, I fear they have 

come too late. 
i\~- ' •''.-■ *ut pas </"• Dieu ru vous punis&e ? Do you 
not tremble lest G • misb yoa .' 

11 ii followed by n<\ 
. i do not rear that lie will 
flee. 

The V( er, t « » prevent, iviter, to avoid, and prtndrt 

ga /(A, t<> take care, are likewise followed by the Bubjunctivo 

wiili n<: 

rCailU trop ri:,, be will prevent their 

Pn m tombiezlhl Take care not to 

full there, 

G. There are, finally, certain conjunctions which are followed 

by tin- subjunctive, not from any power of their own t<> «>v< ru 

that mood, as it i- often erroneously expressed, hut from the 

that their m !<> apply only :<> contingent 

i . although, 
i ided that. u that, U main 



VERBS. 189 

Ex. Avant que V empire eprouvat sa puissance, before the 

Empire felt his power. 
Pourvu qiCil ne le sache 2 )as t H nefera rien, provided that 

he does not know it, he will do nothing. 
A moins que vous ne preferiez rester id, unless you should 

prefer staying here. 

It will have been seen, from all the examples given, that the 
construction of the subjunctive in French differs essentially 
from that in English. In the former, the connection or 
the two parts of the proposition by que is the rule ; in the 
latter, the infinitive or the participle present can be substituted. 
Thus, for the phrase, Je rHaime pas qu'il vienne ici, the English 
may be : I do not like it that he comes here, or, I do not like 
him to come here, or, I do not like his coming here. 

The general rule on the subject is, that, with the limited ex- 
ceptions which will be mentioned hereafter, all such construc- 
tions must be rendered in French by means of que and the 
subjunctive. 

Ex. I was afraid of his betraying his secret, favais peur qu'il 
ne reoelat son secret. 
Would you wish him to be presented to you ? Voudriez- 
vous qiCon vous le presentdt ? 

But the infinitive may be used in French also — 

1. When the subject of the two verbs in the two parts of 
the proposition is one and the same. 

Ex. II veut avoir raison contre tout le moiide, he wants to be 
right against everybody. 
II a consenti a abandonner le proces, he has consented to 
abandon the lawsuit. 

Verbs which take ne after them before the subjunctive, do not. 
add it before the infinitive. 

Ex. 11 craignait toujours de tomber, he was always afraid of 
faJline;. 



190 0!N THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

2. Yerbs expressing command, consent, or obligation, in 
Personal verbs, and etre with an adjective, may, in simpl 
)hrases, be followed by the infinitive with de. 

Ex. Ltd permeltrez-vous d'y aller ? Will you permit him to 
go there ? 
On r a force de se taire, they have compelled him to keep 

quiet. 
II est doux de rentrer ckez sol, it is pleasant to return 

home. 
"When que with the subjunctive is followed by another que, as 
in comparisons* the last que must have de after it. 
Ex. Jltoudraii miew qu i dt rester aeee die, 

it would !»■ better for you to leave than to stay with her. 

3. Bome of those conjunctions which were mentioned before 
a<= apt to be followed by the subjunctive, like avani que, a fin 
que, a moh - and loin que, may also 
be followed by the infinitive with de, and pour, for, and 8am, 
without, or by the infinitive without de, whenever the subject of 
the two parts of the proposition, which they connect, is the 

Ex. J< m tow '■ diraiava I '■ ptitter ces lieuz, I will tell you 
before leaving hi 
// r<i fail turtout afin de plain h see parents, he did it 

mainly in ord.r to please his parents. 
// /, . lee eoldate, he hid it to 

keep it from the boWw 

tthoraused with ru before the aubjuno- 
ti\e, whi n . 1 1 . i r. - setion which la ye! aneertaln. 

oei tain), it ought 
to i,.-i- . . i.. . d done before he dl 

It ought to be 
done 1). fore he could come. 

. followed by a verb, la translated by juequ'd a que, and 
• ,. tiveibr contingi at, the Indicative fox i 



VERBS. 191 

Ex. J'ai cause avec elle jusqu'd ce qu'elle s'endormit, I talked 
to her until she fell asleep. 
11 promit d 'attentive jusqu'd ce qu'ilfut ventre, he promised 
to wait until he should come back. 

When two verbs succeed each other, subject to the same 
conjunction, the latter must be repeated before the second verb, 
but only in the form of que, which also takes the place oi si, if, 
to b.e thus repeated. 

Ex. II seva assez pourvu qu'il vienne et qu'il vous voie, it will 
be enough, so he comes and sees you. 
Si Van vient et qu>on me demande, if anybody comes and 
asks for me. 

There are, finally, a few cases in French, in which the general 
rule that the subjunctive always forms the secondary dependent 
part of a proposition, seems to be disregarded. With one ex- 
ception such constructions are elliptical, and therefore only in 
appearance different from the general form. They are the fol- 
lowing. 

1. The imperative and emphatic wish is expressed by que 
with the subjunctive, the word of command or wish being 
omitted but understood. 

Ex. (Je veux) Que chacun veste a sa place ! Let everybody 
remain in his seat ! 
Que Dieu vous pardonne, la Justice ne le peut pas f may 
God pardon you, Justice cannot pardon you. 

2. In a few proverbial or technical expressions, not only the 
>receding verb, but even que is by ellipsis omitted. 

Ex. Vive VEmpereur! Vive le. pvince imperial ! Long live 
the Emperor ! Long life to the Imperial Prince ! 
Fais ton devoir 7 arrive que voudra ! Do your duty, hap- 
pen what may ! 

The use of the subjunctive of certain verbs instead of the con- 
ditional construction with si, f, has already been explained. 



192 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

3. The only true exception to the general rule is the first 
person of the subjunctive present of the verb savoir, to know, 
which is used without being preceded by or dependent on a 
previous verb. 

Ex. Sera-t-il ici ? Pas que je cache. Will he be here? Not 
that I know. 
Je ne xoeke rien qui me ptatrait mieuz que cela, I know 

nothing that would please me better than that. 
Je >te sacks que cc general qui puisse la commander^ I 
know but. this one general who could command it. 



Exercise, 



Tin- soldiers cried out, with on,' voice : Permit us to die before your 
fighting for your glory and your name ! Do you really wish me 
to Bee and to avoid you hereafter? Wo had Intended to have a 
ii- pic-nic this afternoon, but tin' rain prevented our going to 
the ion -t, where it was tin- intention that all should collect 1 prefer 
that he Bhould be unhappy rather than tlial h<- should commit so 
a wrong He is astonished that people should have been able 
to Uve 'm such times, and to sufi r as much as these unfortunate beings 
have suffered during t!i» war. Do you think that in creating n repub- 
lic of bees, God would not Instruct k'm:;s to rule with gentleness and 
pubji i bb? Do you - - ons of you 

robbed you of your money, or did you not rather 
thin!. bborhood? He doubted that It 

but when we awo ht we heard 

I do not mean you to make any 
my account, or to send ami l w- i me It i* 

■ it at nil than to do it by halves, Sir, 

audio 
ther 
be ^ 

ken when you imi ■ ; '~ r '" 

your friends in tin- | 

anller • havi 



VEEBS. 103 

required a large sum of money. It looks as if he had foreseen all the 
difficulties, for he had made his will and desired it to he deposited in 
hank. He was the most learned man Russia had ever produced, and 
he received all the honors which were due only to the man who then 
shed such lustre upon a half barbarous nation. There are few people 
who know how to enjoy themselves in a simple, unpretending way ; 
most of the amusements which we enjoy, cost more than they are 
worth. Let all the men step on one side and all the women remain on 
the other side ; then let them advance, one by one, and receive their 
wages. This was done, so that there might be no confusion, for the 
crowd was very large, and it was feared some tumult might arise amid 
so great an assemblage; but all went off better than had been 
expected. He denies ever having taken opium for such purposes, 
but he admits having been forced to eat large quantities, when he 
was sick and in the hands of a poor physician. I am not afraid that 
he will escape from jail, for he is far too anxious that he should be 
tried and his innocence be established. 



This prevented our going abroad for this year, but we hope, if no 
misfortune overtakes us, that another year will see us all assembled 
at the paternal hearth of our native land. Take care not to forget 
the letters which must be written before the mail leaves : if I were 
you, I would not wait until there is but half an hour's time before its 
close. I hope we shall be safe before the tempest breaks out, for the 
boat is fast, and the little port, for which we are all bound, only a few 
miles distant. I will give him the money he wants, provided he will 
promise me to repay it before he goes away. Be it that there really 
was not enough or that they had not the good-will to be liberal, they 
gave us very little. Were you not afraid of her succumbing to the 
violence of the attack, especially as there was no doctor to whom you 
could apply at once for assistance ? I must confess, I was afraid she 
might die at any moment, but I also knew that her life was in God's 
hands, and thus my mind was less disturbed. 



Would he wish me to come instantly ? asked the man ; and when 
he understood that he was wanted on the spot, he did not even say 
good-bye to his family, but went with the messenger, that he might 
see and relieve the sufferer. When the kin<r saw the reluctance of his 



194 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

ministers to sign the proclamation, he said in an angry tone - I 
will he obeyed ; and after that all resistance was in vain. Louis XI. 
always feared to be murdered by poison or by the dagger, and sur- 
rounded himself with guards on all sides ; but his one great enemy, 
Death, found him when he least expected him. It is odd to see the 
father and the son together ; they resemble each other so closely, and 
the former looks so young and the latter so old, that it seems as if 
they were brothers rather. You must tell me your secret before leav- 
ing my room, for I burn to know it, and I will not let you go until 
you have told me all. Unless he should spend all his mouey and be 
reduced to poverty, ho will never consent to his father's conditions, 
f>r 1 do not know anybody who is more obstinate than he. When 
they asked him if anybody had been at the house, he answered in a 
very rude manner, Nobody, that I know of, and went away. 



VIII. THE PARTICIPLE PKK.SENT. 

The Participle Present presents some difficulties on account 
of its double nature. B8 a part oi' the verb from which it derives 
its form, its meaning and its regimen, and as an adjective, the 
functions of which it performs by expressing a quality. To do 
this, the participle present, which invariably en. Is in ant, as- 
sumes a feminine form in mate e and a plural form in ». 
Tin- general rule on the use of this participle is this: 
The participle present u declined, when it serves as an ad- 
jective, bo a> t" agree in gender and number with the noun it 
qualifies: it is Kit unchanged when it serves as a verb. 

In order t>> know when it is an adjective and when a verb, 

it need only he inquired if ii express a quality, and then it is 

the former ; or if it express an action and have an object, and 
then it is a verb. 

Ex.J'aiVM D mvt ></ rrttr dome rh'innanlr, \ have often 6Ccn 

this charming lady (quality). 
J^ni vu souvefft cette dame eharment t<»ii uncereU faction), 

I bav< this lady charming a whole crowd. 

Une ceintun brillontedt pit i belt shining 

with precious stoa< a 



VEEBS. 195 

It must not be forgotten that participles as adjectives are sub- 
ject to a special rule as to their place, and invariably follow the 
noun they qualify. 

Several rules requiring the English participle present to be 
changed into the infinitive or a relative pronoun and verb, in 
French, have been mentioned with the rules on the use of the 
infinitive. 

The participle present of avoir and etre is invariable, because 
ayant and etant cannot, from their signification, be used as 
adjectives to express a quality. 

Ex. Ces homines ayant les memes travaux s l ent7 ,1 aident, these 
men having the same work to do, help each other. 
Mes sceurs etant absentes ne le virent pas, my sisters being 
absent, did not see it. 
It must be borne in mind here that the participle present 
may be the object of another verb, whenever it expresses action 
and consequently has an object. 

Ex. J'ai vu mon frere plus d'une fois lisant Horace, I have 
seen my brother more than once reading Horace. 
On le voit de temps en temps se promenant la-bas, he is 
occasionally seen walking down there. 
But by placing en before the participle, it becomes referable 
to the subject of the sentence. 

Ex. J'ai vu mon frere en lisant Horace, while I was reading 
Horace, I saw my brother. 
II le voit de temps en temps en se promenant, he sees him 
occasionally, when he takes a walk. 



Exercise. 



This kind lady was obliging all the unfortunate refugees by her 
gifts and her kindness of every kind, and they all declared her the 
*most charming lady they had ever known. When we arrived on the 
battle-field we heard all around us the shells exploding with a terrible 
crash, and a cannon-ball, falling on his aid, killed him on the spot. 



196 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

These ladies uttered piercing cries when the men broke open the door, 
and two fell fainting on the ground. Was it not a pleasant sight to 
his eyes to see the widow of his enemy falling on her knees and 
weeping before him ? We heard these distressing words with sincere 
grief, and they fell like burning sparks upon our hearts. He possesses 
the rare art of instructing his pupils while amusing them, and I have 
seen them writing their exercises without being bored. She looked 
at him with withering scorn, and then said to him in a threatening 
voice : Never show yourself in my presence again, if you wish to save 
your life. 



IX. THK PAKIICII'LE PAST. 



The Participle Past, which ends in < ; , i ami u, s or t, serves 
likewise both purposes, as a verb and as an adjective, and 
varies accordingly in its form, making a feminine and a plural 
in the former capacity, and remaining unchanged in the latter. 
It i> used in the following ways : 

1. The participle past may occnr without an auxiliary verb 
ih an adjective to qualify a noun, and then it has to agree with 
.:. 1 number. 

Ex. Qut ■''■ /■< ' . '■ ■■'• ■•'■ truiti ' ! How 

many walls razed! How many towns taken by storm! 

Jc , ID them all 

di ad or wounded. 
It may, also, occur without an am w adverb, in 

Which Bate it remains, of COUne, unchanged and precedes the 

noun. 

Kx. r »v joint un billet (Telle, you will find 

osed a note from her. 

Y i n /<nt, considering the 

circumstances they have done well. 
Ex epl yon and 

1, they bave a, I left. 



VERBS. 197 

2. The participle past may occur in connection with the 
verb &tre, in which case it will invariably agree with its subject. 
This may be the case 
In passive verbs: 

Ex. Nous serous tous charmes de vous voir, we shall all bo 
delighted to see you. 
La vertu timide est souvent opprimee, timid virtue is often 
oppressed. 
In neuter verbs, the compound tenses of which are made 
with the auxiliary verb etre. 

Ex. Nous sotnmes venus vous feliciter de votre succes, we have 
come to congratulate you on your success. 
Tous les arts sont ties a Vombre de la paix, all the arts 
were born under the shadow of peace. 
In pronominal verbs, the compound tenses of which are 
invariably made by the aid of the auxiliary verb Ure. 

Ex. Elle iest tue un peu trop longtemps, she has kept silence 
a little too long. 
lis se seraient tues si on ne les avaient pas empeches, 
they would have killed each other, if they had not 
been prevented. 
Elle s'est trompee en voulant tromper les autres, she 
deceived herself while trying to deceive others. 
It must, however, be borne in mind that the object of some 
pronominal verbs is not a direct but an indirect object, in which 
case the participle past remains unchanged. 

Ex. lis se sont parle (Tun a V autre) toute une heure, they 
have spoken with one another a whole hour. 
Ces deux rois se sont succede de suite, these two kings 
followed each other directly. 
The same rule applies to verbs which become pronominal 
only by the substitution of the personal for the possessive 
pronouns. 



198 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. Elk s'est brkle la main et le bras, she burnt her hand 
and her arm. 
Est-ce que vous vous etes lave les mains? Did you wash 
your hands ? 
The same rule applies to the past tenses of verbs made, 
passive by the addition of the pronoun se. 

Ex. II scsl assemble une foule de gens armes, a crowd of 
armed men has been gathered together. 
77 s\st trance di.r homines de tues, there have been found 
ten men who were killed. 

3. The participle past may occur in connection with the verb 
avoir, in which case it will agree only with the direct object, 
that precedes it. 

If the object is an indirect one, the participle remains 
unchanged. 

Ex. On l"tr a dii tout et qu'on apu dire, they have been told 

all that could be told. 
If there 18 DO Objecl at all, the participle remains unchanged. 
dormi j» U, there had been 
h talk and little Bleep. 

If the direct object follows the participle, it remains un- 
changed. 

].; v /. ■. ,, , /., i ,', she has seen all 

people who admire bar. 

in object, and that object is ■ 
the verb, the participle will agree 
with it in gender and Dumber. 
Ex. Doi .-->■!■ 

mi- the apples you have promised 

•. which thus precedes the participle past, 
ma\ I 

A noun, accompanied by an interrogative adverb, 



VEKBS. 199 

Ex. Combien de livres lui avez-vous donnes 2 How many 
books have you given him ? 
Quelle dame a-t-il saluee en passant ? Which lady did he 
speak to in passing ? 
A relative pronoun, relating to its antecedent. 
Ex. Les livres que vous m'avez vendus sont venus, the books 
you sold me have come. 
Void Vetoffe que fai achetee pour vous, this is the 
material I have bought for you. 
A personal pronoun, preceding the auxiliary verb. 
Ex. Ou sont ces dames et qui les a accompagnees ? Where are 
those ladies, and who accompanied them ? 
J'ai vu cette tragedie et je Vai admiree, I have seen that 

tragedy and I have admired it. 
Vous avez Men fait, Messieurs, et on vous a hues, you 
have done well, Gentlemen, and you have been praised. 
The participle past of etre remains always unchanged. 
Ex. Les liommes qui ont ete id, n'y sont plus, the men who were 
here, are no longer here. 



Exekcise. 



The United States are the greatest republic in the world, and 
Kussia is the largest empire. He cherishes ill-founded prejudices, and 
hence his life is a continuous series of disappointments and of- 
fended feelings. Considering his youth and his inexperience, he has 
overcome the difficulties of this unexpected adventure with great tact. 
I send you these lines to inform you of her arrival, and enclosed you 
will find the money required to come here. The best speeches have 
ever been those which the heart has dictated. My friends were very 
happy to hear the news which the messenger brought ; they had 
believed their brother dead, and now they heard that the wounds 
which he had received were not fatal. How many young men have 
lost the best years of their life, because they had no friends who could 
have given them good advice ! We have seen you often, when you 
did not think that we were near ; and we have heard you, when you 



200 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

imagined you were quite alone. These young ladies ventured too far, 
and they have been severely punished for their temerity, for the men 
in the house which they had passed rushed out and ran after them, 
until their friends, who had seen them at a distance, came to their 
rescue. It was said of this remarkable man, that he had created the 
language, which he alone had spoken. She has saved herself from 
this danger, but she has injured herself in the estimation of many 
people. 



The participle past, with a direct object before it, is some- 
times followed by an infinitive, and then the question may arise, 
whether the object is that of ihe first verb or of the infinitive? 
In this case the nature of the first verb must, be ascertained: 
if it is an active verb, the object will be. its own, and then the 
participle past will, ac< lie, agree with it in number 

and gender; if it is a neuter verb, then the direct object must 
g to the following infinitive, and therefore the 
participle past will remain unchanged. 

Ex. La danu gut fat entendut chanter, the lady I have heard 

I ■ r, these are the 

ks which you seemed to wish for. 

It may. however, happen that both verbs, that in the parti- 

I ast and the fo lowing infinitive, are active verbs, In that 

irefullv inquire to which of the two the direct 

object properlj belongs, and accordingly modify or not modify 

the participle past, 

\.\. i . the lady 1 have heard 

; ( I heard the lady nngi 

/. ' entendu chanter, the melodies I heard 

J 1 heard BUI 

./' A • em come. 

. may be used in two ways, 
simply determined by the agreement or uon agreement of the 

participle p • 



VERBS. 2i'» 1 

Ex. Je les ai vu peindre, I have seen them paint (being 
painted). 
Je les ai vus peindre, I have seen them paint (painting). 
On les a laisses piller, they have let them rob. 
On les a laisse piller, they have let them be robbed. 

The verb f aire is the only one which forms an apparent excep- 
tion to this rule, as it never varies ; but this arises not from any 
anomaly, but from the fact that it is considered as part of the fol- 
lowing infinitive, with which it forms but one word. 
Ex. On les a tousfait venir ici, they have made them all come 
here. 
Les tables que j'avais fait f aire dans cette title, the tables I 
had ordered in that city. 

A participle past which has two or more direct objects pre- 
ceding it, will agree with both, in the plural, if its meaning 
applies clearly to both, or it will remain unchanged if it refers 
but to one. 

Ex. Cest votre interet plutot que votre ambition qu'il a consulte, 
it is your interest rather than your ambition which he 
has consulted. 
Cetait sa femme et sa sceur qu'il a acccmpagnees, it was 
his wife and his sister whom he accompanied. 
The same distinction must be made, whenever the direct- 
object preceding a participle past is an adverb or other expres- 
sion of quantity followed by de with a plural noun. 

Ex. Que de maux ce pauvre homme a soufferts! How many 
ills this poor man has endured ! 
Ce fat le plus grand nombre des revoltes qu'on a fusile, 
it was the greater number of the rebels they have shot. 
The conj unction que is not unfrequently used instead of a rela- 
tive pronoun preceded by a preposition : in such cases it is not a 
genuine direct object, however much it may have the appearance, 
and hence the participle past will remain xinchanged. 
Ex. Les jours qu'il a vecu, the days (during) which he has 
lived. 



202 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Exercise. 

These books, which I have often seen you read -with such interest, 
are the same which I heard read aloud last winter in my brothers 
family. I saw her paint that portrait myself, and now she denies 
that it is her work. These melodies were those which the Swiss 
soldiers had heard sung in their mountains : they made them so 
homesick, that an order was given prohibiting their being played by 
the band. What civil war has this great man kindled, and when 
■was it terminated by hh death? That is a part of ancient history 
which I have not read for a long time, and I have forgotten the events 
which you have mentioned. We travelled very far that day, but 
towards noon the horses refused to work well, and I did not know to 
what cause I could ascribe this until I found out that the driver had 
not ht them eat enough in the morning. The services which he had 
rendered the minis-, r vrere so great, that the latter did not know 
how to reward them : thus the pK,r man has received neither money 
ih>T Office, How many duties have you neglected, and how many 

times have I told you bo, bul you would never listen to the warnings 

which you have received from so many friends I 



ENGLISH Atxii.i uuks OF Moon in FRKKGH. 

Then a Ki gKafa verba which are frequently called 

auxiliaries <>\ m 1. because, unlike the two auxiliary verbs. To 

have and To he, they do not help to form tenses, bul to express 

moods in which the action of the verb may be 

Such ate the rerba, I may, I will, I shall, I must, 

1 !,;, metimea rendered in French by a 

. and at other times they ate translated literally, as baa 

•v been explained i-' tl ase of tin- imperative mood, which 

med, in French, from the veil, directly, while in English 
I To ht. We propose to state here the 
.', rules which dct< i mine the i. rerbs. 

The v«i 1. /■■ '/i.e. av an independent verb, corresponds to the 
English verb, »nly to physical ability, 



VERBS. 203 

while savoir has to be employed whenever moral or mental 
ability is to be expressed. 

Ex. Lltomnie le plus fort ne pent lever cefardeau, the strongest 
man cannot take up this load. 
Vhomme le plus savant ne sail dechiffrer ces signes, the 

most learned man cannot decipher these signs. 
Pouvez-vous marcher ? Can you (are you strong enough 

to) walk. 
JSavez-vous danser ? Can you (do you know how to) 
dance ? 
As an auxiliary verb, pouvoir corresponds to the English 
verbs I can and I may, and their past tenses, could and might. 
Ex. Je veux et jc peux /aire tout autant, I will and I can do 
quite as much. 
Puis-je aller le voir demain soir ? May I go and see him 
to-morrow night? 
When used negatively, pouvoir means only I can ; if it is to 
mean I may, the negation must be added to the following 
infinitive. 

Ex. Je ne peux pas marcher si vite, I cannot walk so fast. 

J e peux ne pas le/aire, sije le prefer e, I may not do it, if 
I prefer. 
I could, is in English used for two purposes : it is either the 
past tense of I can, and then must be translated by the corres- 
ponding tense of pouvoir ; or it is the conditional, and then it 
will be translated by the French conditional. 

Ex. I could do it formerly, but I am too weak no\v,je pouvais 
le/aire autrefois, maisje suis trop faible maintenant. 
I never could tell him the whole truth, je n^ai jamais 

pu lui dire toute la verite. 
I could do it if I chose, je pourrais le /aire si je le pre- 
ferais. 
I might, is never a past tense in English, but only used as the 



20 i ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

conditional form, and hence it is always translated by tlie 
conditional of pouvoir. 

Ex. I might go to-morrow if you were ready, je pourraia 
2>artir demain, si cons etiez pret. 

I can liave been, is translated simply by the preterit indefinite 
of pouvoir; and I could, and I might have been, by the 
conditional of the past 

Ex. How can you have been so careless! Comment arez-vous 
pu itre si nigligent ! 
I could have been hero before you, if I had made haste, 

faurais pu 6tn ici avant vous, sij( m'itais dtperke". 
They might have been kinder t<> us, ils auraientpu itre 
j, Ins affable* enven nous. 

French authors Bay indifferently j< peuxatjepuis, but iu Inter 
rogative sentences pui*j< alone is oaed 
I'.x. P i m ///•< t May I n«>t read (be excused from 

readii 



Tin y may say what tiny choose, I cannot believe it, for they hnvo 
told me an ontrnth once, and after thai l can give them credil no 
1< «iiir'r. M:i\ vre put "ii oox shawls and hats, and take a walk in the 
garden 1 \<>n can >l" it. If yon <!<> M'>i think it is too damp, and that 
you mJghl take ■ <'.iM by exposing yourself. May yen know one day 
what tender love she bore yon ; th<- knowledge <>t' it will be a great 
consolation to yon, If ever trouble should come to sadden you l could 
have embraced him, bo great was my joy when I saw him again. Can 
you t«-!l me wh<> tin- twelve Cesears were l used to be able to recite 
them all, hut it i> bo long since I have read tlnir history that I cannot 
now promise yon to tell them in order. I believe be could have done 
that and more also, it' the time had been given t<> him ; but it may 
be asked, If anybody cottd have succeeded in bo little time They 
could easily tell yon all about this man, and his interets, if they wen* 
to <1" m> : but they are very <1 screel persons, an I they may 
think that they have do right t.> betray hi> secrete. 



205 



Vouloir. 
The verb vouloir, as an independent verb, corresponds to the 
English verb To be willing. 

Ex. Elle ri'a pas voulu meme m'ecouter, she was not even 

willing to listen to rue. 
In its imperative form, second person plural, it has the mean- 
ing of the English word Please, or similar expressions. 
Ex. Veuillez me passer le sel, please pass the salt. 

Veuillez Men me dire oil demeure le cure, be so kind as to 
tell me where the priest lives. 
It has occasionally the same meaning when used interroga- 
tively and accompanied by bien. 

Ex. Voulez-vous bien lui preter vos secours? Please lend him 

your assistance. 
It must not be forgotten that vouloir is, as has already been 
stated, an active verb in French, and consequently does not 
require the additional verb To have, as in English, where it is 
intransitive. 

Ex. Will you have some coffee or some tea ? Voulez-vous du 

cafe ou da the ? 
As an auxiliary verb, the English I will is used to form the 
future ; hence attention must be had to distinguish between I 
will, as an independent verb expressing volition or readiness, 
and I will, as an auxiliary verb forming the future. 

Ex. He will meddle with things which do not concern him, 
il veut se meler a des choses qui ne le reyardent pas. 
He will give you all you ask of him, il vous dormers, 
tout ce que vous lui demanderez. 
The past tense, I would, is used in the same manner both 
as the past of I will, and as the conditional mood, and must be 
translated accordingly. 

Ex. I would come and see you, but I could not, je voulais 
aller vous voir, mais je ne le pouvais pas. 



2 I S OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

I would go and see you, if I could, firais vous voir, si je 

lepouvais. 
She never would speak to rue about her lovers, elle w'a 
jamais voulu me purler de ses amunts, 
I wish, is frequently substituted for I would, in English, 
and is in such cases translated by the past conditional of 
vouloir. 

Ex. I wish he had never come to this place, faurais voulu 

qu'il ne Jut jamais venu en ces lieux. 
I will have and I would have, followed by personal pronouns 
in English, are translated by vouloir simply. 

Ex. 1 will have yon know. Sir, that I am master here, jeveux 
tjur 9ou$ sachiee, Monsieur, que >/">i je suit mattrt ici. 
1 would not have you do that for all the world, je ne 
vous fissiet cela pour tout an mvndt, 
Vouloir, in the conditional mood and after si, if, has often 
the meaning of the English \erl> Like. 

Ex. J<t voudrais vous voir quand nuts dansez, I should like to 
j ou, w ben you dance. 
A* • . < voulet, we will go together, 

if you like. 
Vouloir in the conditional represents, finally, the English 
I wish, followed by would or could. 

Ex. 1 wish you would not Bpeak so loud,y« voudrais que sew 
)<■■ i arlatsiet pat §i haul* 
II. Irishes be were at home, il voudrait itre chet lui. 



Exi Rl l-K. 



Will you go with us. nrdoyon prefer going there al<>ne'.' w. will 

wait for you until one o'clock, and if yon do not eonie then, we will 

ade that you would rather not have oar company. They would 

d i it with pleasure, I am sure of It, If you were t<> tell them 

was lor u .si<k lady Make hsstfl and bring the carriage up, 



VERBS. 207 

for I should like to reach there before it is quite dark, and the days 
are short at this season of the year. He said, with an air of injured 
innocence : I would have you know, Gentlemen, that I am an honest 
man, and that I will not do a thing which such a man is ashamed of 
doing. He wishes me to accompany him to Europe next year, and I 
am willing to go, but I fear I shall not have money enough to pay the 
expenses. What will she have for her supper to-day ? Let us know 
soon ; and tell us also, how many dishes you will have for dinner to- 
morrow. I should like very much to buy this picture, but it is very 
costly and it will require an expensive frame. 



Devoir. 
Devoir represents a number of English expressions conveying 
the idea of duty or obligation; but it is limited to moral 
obligations, physical necessity, and such duty as admits of no 
choice being expressed by falloir. It answers, therefore, for the 
English. 

To be, followed by To and a verb. 

Ex. He was to be here, but he has not come, il devait etre ici, 
mais il iJest pas venu. 
She is to sing to-night her favorite song, elle doit chanter 
ce soir sa chanson favorite. 
Ought to, followed by a verb, when it is commonly employed 
in the conditional mood. 

Ex. You ought to see him when he is a little excited, vous 
devriez le voir quand il est un peu excite. 
They ought to have been here long before us, Us auraient 
du etre ici beaticoup avant nous. 
Should, followed by a verb, when it expresses a duty ; in this 
case, also, it is used in the conditional mood. 

Ex. These men should be made to do their duty, on devrait 
forcer ces gens a f aire leur devoir. 
He should not have been allowed to leave so soon, on 
rH await pas dit, lui permettre de partir si tot. 



208 ON THE FARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

I shall, etc., is never expressed by devoir except in interrog- 
ative sentences; otherwise the future alone is used. 

Ex. I shall have lost half my fortune before this is over, 
faurai perdu la moitie de ma fortune, avant que ccla 
t>er a jiui. 
Shall I tell you what I think of it ? Dois-je vous dire ce 

que fen pense? 
What shall I do, if that should happen \ Que dois-je 
faire st cela arrivait ' 
The past tenses of the verb devoir have a double meaning. 
They represent either simply the verb, I was to, etc., or they 
express the conviction that the action of the verb following 
baa really taken place. 

Ex EUa del i'i U Ini dire, nuiis tlli /'(/ oublit, site was to tell 

him bo, bat Bhe has forgotten it. 
Elk ■ a demi endormi quand je U lui die, she 

mast have been half asleep, when 1 told her so, 
D I-,... ■ ;.-. may, in the third person singular, be pre- 

ceded by ili«- demonstrative prononn ce. 
Bx. <: ,: jt aooireu < u kier <m atant Mer, that must have 

happened yi sterday ox the day before, 
/} Belated already, in the subjunctive of the past 

used interrogatively to mark a conditional 
sentence. 

//. even if he should be 

hurt by it. I "ill t'H him I '. 

/, - ,- . faint A faire, you must do it, 

should you lose every thing. 



, ought to have been ashamed of your violence, for a man of 

V(Ylir have more control over h Bhe should 

be more careful of her health, for it Is already delicate, sad if she 

s ordinary preeaut ons, she will have to suffer much f.> r her 



VEEBS. 20S 

carelessness. They must be men of note, for everybody salutes them 
and the greatest honors are shown them wherever they appear. I 
ought to know them, for I am sure I have seen their faces, but I can- 
not recollect who they may be. Even if they were to be our masters, 
we could never be made to love them, although we might learn to 
obey them. These books must have suffered very much on their 
voyage across the ocean, for they are all more or less mouldy, and 
some are entirely spoiled ; they ought to have been cleaned and dried 
as soon as the vessel came into port. Shall I tell him to bring you 
the wine, or will you tell him yourself? 



Laisser. 
The verb laisser answers the purpose of translating the Eng- 
lish verb To let, when it has the meaning of, To give permission, 
to allow. 

Ex. Will you let us go out this evening ? Nous luisserez- 
vous surtir ce soir ?■ 
Let me out, or I shall be stifled in this room, laissez-moi 
sortir, ou f etouffe dans cette salle. 
But it must be remembered that the English verb To let, is 
made use of, also, to form the imperative mood. In that case 
it is not translated at all into French, the imperative itself 
answering the purpose there. 

Ex. Let us go at once, or we shall be too late, allons de suite, 
ou nous serous en retard. 
Let him do it if he chooses ; I do not care, qu'il le fasse 
s'il le veut ; moi, je ne nCen soucie pas. 
Let them go (wish), qu'il s'en aillent ; let them go (leave), 
laissez-les partir. Laisser, being an active verb in French, does 
not require the addition of the auxiliary verb To have, which is 
necessary in English, where To let is intransitive. 

Ex. I will let you have what you want for the same price, je 
vous laisserai ce qu'il vowsfaut, pour le meme prix. 

Laisser is not the proper verb to translate To let, when it is 



210 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

followed by a double object, a verb and a pronoun. In such 
cases it is better to change the construction. 

Ex. I cannot let him ill-treat you so, je ne peux lui permettre 
de vons maltraitcr ainsi. 
Do not let him read so much at night, ne lui permettez 
jmzs de lire tant le soir. 



Exercise. 



Let me tell you what I have seen first, and then you can tell me 
your adventures, if you have anything: to tell. Let us go now, before 
the moon is too low; the night is culm and cool, and a walk around 
the Ink.- will be delightful Le1 hex go out, if she cannot stay in any 
longer; I do not like to force her todo what is so unpleasant to her, 
luit she ought to let me tell her, thai her conduct is not that of a nioe 
girl, and thai I am much distressed on that account. Leave me, and 
do not BBJ any thing more about this Bad affair; it has given me pain 
enough, and has not lei me deep for several nights, Let him come 
out, if he dares, and say all; I can only gain by the truth being made 
known. Friends, 1st us honor his memory, and let us never forget 
what we owe to his honest and Btrennoos efforts t<> advance the good 
cause and to overcome all the difficulties which were in our way. 



Failoir. 
The verb failoir \ French, .-ill the English words 

whi.h convey the idea of absolute necessity, physical force, 
and unavoidable obligation, as tar as these expressfona are not 
translated by devoir, in thia signification it has a double con- 
struction: it may either be followed by que with the subjunc- 
tive mood — 

Ex n faui que row Kites plus haut, you must read louder, 
11 fallait "U ought to have 

come this mornii 

Jlf.nnlm <ju\1 C die, he Will have to go away 

with her, 



VERBS. 2 1 1 

II faudrait que cette mesure Jut prise de suite, it would be 
proper to take that measure at once — 
or it may be used with a personal pronoun as its indirect 
object, and be followed by the infinitivo of the verb. 

Ex. II nous faut travailler jour et nuit, we have to work 
day and night. 
H luifaudra s' 'en passer pour quelque temps, he will have 

to do without it for some time. 
II leur faudrait en etre bien contents, they ought to be 
well pleased with it. 
Falloir has also the meaning of the English verb To want, 
when it is thus used with the personal pronoun ; and in that case, 
the object of the want, a noun, may be used after it instead of 
a verb. 

Ex. I want a new hat and a pair of gloves, il me faut un 
chapeau neufet une paire de gants. 
He wanted more money than he had, to succeed, il lui 
fallut plus d'argent quHl n'avait pour reussir. 

Falloir may be used with the infinitive after it and no 
pronoun, if the necessity applies to the person spoken to or is 
general. 

Ex. II faut mourir tot ou tard, we must all die sooner or 
later. 
Mon ami, il faut le faire, coute que coute, my friend, you 
must do it, cost what it may. 

Falloir is, finally, used quite alone ; but then, being an active 
verb, it requires the addition of le, as every active verb in 
French must have its object expressed. 

Ex. J 1 en suis bien f ache, mais il le faut, I am sorry for it, but 
it must be. 
Est-ce quHl le faut absolument ? Is it absolutely neces- 
sary ? 



212 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 

Exercise. 

We must learn to obey others before we can hope to be able to 
command. You ought not to have done that, for you knew that it 
must distress your parents ; and the commandment tells us that we 
nm.-t honor father and mother. Csesar had to conquer a number of 
powerful tribes before he could reach the Rhine, and then he had to 
encounter even larger armies than those of the Swiss. What must they 
do if they should find that they have not money enough to make all the 
purchases which you have ordered? They will have to come back 
and postpone their plans until Borne future day, when money is more 
abundant. The pool child wants a thick warm cloak for these 
wintry days ; she also wants a pair of thick shoes. We must work, 
if we want to eat, and he who does not sow must not expect to reap, 
Let us do it, since it is necessary, and let us do it cheerfully. You 
most have been very careless in walking through the streets, or you 
would not have soiled your dresses BO much; you must learn to bo 
more careful bereal 



IDIOMATIC D8B MK VKltUS. 



Every ration baa its own peculiar expressions, as every 
individual is well known to bave certain turns of phrases and 
certain expressions, which he uses by preference, and which 
distinguish his conversation from that of others. Such expres- 
. which are peculiar to one language, and therefore cannot 
be translated literally into another language, are called Idioms. 
. when an Englishman the Frenchman is eke* 

/</', and the German tu Il«<is< (in the bouse). 8uch idiomatic 
phrases occur, of course, with all par - ol Bpeecb, but principally 
with verbs, and hence the expediency of hero giving the most 
impoi ts ted with thia class of words. 



The verb ovo/r, to have, is in French used with a large Dum- 
ber of nouns, so at to form a compound verb, expressing but 



VERBS. 213 

one idea. The majority of these expressions are in English 
expressed by the verb To be, with an adjective — e. g. : 



Avoir appetit, 
" /aim, 



To be hungry. 



" des affaires, " busy. 

" chaud, " warm. 

" froid, " cold. 

" honte, " ashamed. 

" peur, " afraid. 

" raison, " right. 

" tort, " wrong. 

" soif, " thirsty. 

" sommeil, " sleepy. 

But with this additional peculiarity, that these verbs can be 
used only with reference to living beings, while etre is used, in 
French as in English, when they are applied to inanimate 
objects. 

Ex. II a. toujours trop chaud ou trop froid, he is always 
either too warm or too cold. 
Cette cave est toujours froide, meme en eU>, this cave is 
always cold, even in summer. 

If the place where heat or cold are felt is mentioned, the 
noun is preceded by the preposition a. 

Ex. J^ai froid aux pieds et je ne puis pas les rechaujfer, my 
feet are cold, and I cannot get them warm again. 

When the English adjective is qualified by the adverb Very, 
its place is supplied in French by bien or by grand. 

Ex. II avait bien faim quand il arriva ici, he was very hungry 
when he reached here. 
Elle avait grand" 1 peur que je ne Voubliasse, she was very 
much afraid I would forget her. 



214 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Avoir is also used with nouns to express Age and Measure, 
where in English the verb To be, with an adjective, is employed. 
Ex. Quoad est-ce qu'elle aura dix ans ? "When will she be 
ten years old ? 
Cet humme a au mains six pieds de hauteur, that man is 
at least six feet high. 
Avoir mal, followed by the preposition a before its noun, 
expresses all the English words for Pain, ache, sore, etc. 

Ex. iPai eti mal a la tele depuis le matin, my head has ached 
since this morning. 
Je ne peux pas marcher, fai mal au pied, I cannot walk, 
my foot is sore. 

mal n't CO UT has the peculiar signification of being sick 
at the stomach. To Buffer pain in the heart is avoir des douleurt 
an •■ 

Kn.li-h c om p ou nd nouns, containing the word ache, are in 
French made wit a the same word mal, followed by t he preposition 
de. 

■ it autei fort que jamais, my toothache is 
■a bad as ever. 
When this Qualified by an adjective, it requires the 

Indi finite article before it. 

atrocs, this wine has given 
ne- 1 ache. 

.1 'air has tii,- various meanings of— To look, when it is 
followed by no adjective or adverb, and To look like, or. Look 
ed bj the preposition de. In tbo first case, tlio 
sains mescaline, when it refers to moral qualities, 
but agrees with the person it refers to, when it expresses physi- 
cal qua 

Ex. ' . this man looks benign, 

u a Pair petite quand ell . this woman 

looks small when she is seated. 
I palais, this house looks 

rati 



VEEBS. 215 

Le temps a Fair de vouloir s' 'eclair cir, the weather looks 
as if it would clear up. 
Avoir without any object but parts of dress, means To have on. 
Ex. Est, ce qu 'elle avait sa robe neuve quand vous la vites? 

Did she have her new dress on when you saw her ? 
Avoir, followed by parts of the body which are qualified by 
an adjective, requires the definite article before them instead of 
the possessive pronoun, which is used in English. 

Ex. Elle a tovjours les mains froides, her hands are always cold. 
Jl se trouva qu'il n'eut que les doigts brules, it turned out 
that only his fingers were burnt. 

When the adjective, bj special rule, precedes the noun, the 
indefinite article is" used in French as in English. 
Ex. Elle avait unefort petite main et de belles dents, she had a 
very small hand and fine teeth. 

Avoir beau, followed by an infinitive, expresses the English 
phrase, To do a thing in vain. It can, however, never be used 
negatiyely. 

Ex. II eut beau me prier, je n'ai pas cede, he tried in vain to 

beg, I did not yield. 

Vous avez beau crier, il tHy a personne qui vous entende, 

you cry in vain, there is nobody here who can hear you. 

Avoir, preceded by the pronoun y, is used for a great variety 

of expressions, which are translated in the most varied way in 

English. The most ordinary use made of il y a, etc., is to 

translate the English There is and There are, as has already 

been explained. 

II y a is sometimes, though rarely, followed by a noun with- 
out an article, with which it forms a compound verb. 

Ex. II y eut apparence comme s'il a.llait neiger, it looked as if 
it were going to snow. 
Est-ce qu'il rCy a p>as moyen de le sauver ? Is there no 
way of saving him ? 



216 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

The two principal purposes, however, for which il y a, etc., 
arc used is to express Time and Distance. 

When applied to expressions of time, il y a answers for all 
the various English phrases used for the purpose ; as, It is, since, 
ago, etc. 

Ex. It is now five years that I have not seen him, il y a 
maiutenant cinq ans que je ne Paipai cu. 
I heard this news two days ago, fai appris atte nouvdle 

il y a deux jours. 
That must have happened six weeks since, cela doit 
etre arrive il y a six seinaines. 

The proper tense to be used alter il y a depends entirely 
upon the general rules which determine the choice between 
It will lie the present, when the action still continues; 
the imperfect, when the action is represented as going on, con- 
tinuing at the past time; the preterit definite, when it took 
place but once ; and the preterit indefinite, when the action 
:. I to the present time. 
J... ' ; tien y n-t-il gut trez ieit How long have 

_\..u been living here I 
J I y a deux air* .vc Hive, it is two yeai 

1 was j our pnpil. 
// u'ij a gut tit moit que /arrival ici, it is only six months 

sine.- 1 came here. 
// y a an an que fai quitti ma ]*iliir, it is a year since I 
left my country, 
// y . -lore the following verb, 

r the W t i. -n of that verb has ceased to take place, alter 
habitual occurrence. 

ru Vat c«, it will be 
I -:ih him. 

latcd otherwise than by the cod 



VEEBS. 21.7 

Ex. 11 y aura liuit jours que vous n'avez ete id, it will be a 
week since you were here. 

When applied to the measurement of distances, il y a is fol- 
lowed simply by the measure itself. 

Ex. II y a cent lieues d'ici a la capitqle, it is a hundred miles 
from here to the capital. 
Combien y a-t-il da village d Veglise ? How far is it from 
the village to the church ? 



Exercise. 



It was, I believe, two years ago when I first had the pleasure of 
meeting with you at the Springs. How old are you now ? I am only 
sixteen, but I look older than I am, because I have been very sick 
several weeks ago, and I have not quite recovered my strength. How 
long is it since you spoke for the first time in public ? It must have 
been thirty years ago, for it was then I commenced my public career, 
and I remember well, I was very much afraid I would not succeed. 
It is the lot of the poor to be always hungry and thirsty ; but they 
have no cause to be ashamed of it, if their poverty is not the effect of 
their vices. I had a new coat on, and therefore I did not wish to ex- 
pose myself to the rain, and I told you before we started that it looked 
as if it were going to rain. He was only four feet high, when he was 
twelve years old, but he has grown very rapidly since he was placed 
under your care six years ago. There is no reason why he should 
always be right and you always wrong, but there are many people 
in the world who imagine that they cannot be wrong. She has a 
high forehead and a prominent nose, but her eyes are not handsome, 
and her mouth is too large. Can you tell me, my friend, how far it is 
from here to the next inn ? I can tell you the exact distance ; it v 
six miles and a half. 



Etre. 



The verb Ure also, like avoir, is used with a large number of 
nouns in such intimate connection as to form with them com- 
pound verbs, which express but one idea. 



218 ON" THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. Je suis en peine de votes voir souffrir, I am distressed to 
see you suffer. 
Est-ce que vous serez a meme de /aire ccla tout seul? Will 

you be able to do that quite alone \ 
Elle etait debout quand je lui parlai, she was standing 
when I spoke to her. 

Y itre has the idiomatic meaning of being there, in a figura- 
tive Sense — viz., to understand a matter of which we speak; 
though y etre may also literally mean to be there — viz., at 
home. 

Ex. MaintenaiU que vous parlez net, fy suis, now that you 
speak clearly, 1 understand it. 
Madamt votn inert y est ell* .' N n, Monsieur, elle a'y est 
pas, is your mother at hum she is not. 

En it re means to be of the company, to be one of a set; and 
in a narrative, to have left off. 

Ex. NoUS allonS ii la We are going to 

hunt, will you go with ue .' 
' Uores "nt In a, tine reliure, mats its tCen tont j><i-*, 
books have the same binding, but tli<-y do no* 

Eh f'ii a, met enf ants', ou <n itions-nous hier soirt Well, 
children, where did we break off last night '. 

It will be remembered that ftn d means to belong to, and 
Hiati<ls Instead oi To be, with th ronoon in Kn^lisli. 

This is my I'.xik. and that la my brother's, (feet men Here, 

The preterit indefinite ofsVn is frequently need instead of the 
same tense of die verbator, whenever it means to bavegone 
and t«> have retained again. 

Ex. lb' lias gone to chnrch and will not !"• bark till dinner, 

i (A retour que pour Is 



VEKBS. 2 1 9 

He has gone to church and returned an hour ago, il a 
ete a Veglise et il est ventre il y a une heure. 
The English auxiliary verbs To have and To be, as well as 
the so-called auxiliaries of mood, I will, I can, I may, etc., all 
of which are active verbs in French and there require the 
addition of a direct object, are very frequently used alone, to 
express assent, dissent, surprise or mere emphasis, in order to 
keep up the conversation. Thus in English it is said : You are 
a little afraid, are you not ? Give me that book, will you ? 

These expressions are inadmissible in French, and some other 
means must be sought for to produce the same effect. The 
following are the most frequently employed : 

When the auxiliaries are used merely to express assent or 
dissent, the adverbs oui and non, certainement or point du tout 
supply their place. 

Ex. Are you the man I sent for? I am. Est-ce que vous etes 
Vhomme que fai envoy e chercher ? Oui, Monsieur 
Will you do it ? No, I will not, voulez-vous le /aire ? 
Non, Monsieur. 
When the auxiliaries are used interrogatively, merely to 
repeat the question, as it were, n! est-ce pas ? is used in French. 
Ex. Vous etes le maitre d'hotel, n'est-ce pas? You are the 
head steward, are you not ? 
lis sont tous partis ce matin, n'est-ce pas? They all left 
this morning, did they not ? 
When the auxiliaries are thus used after another verb to 
ascertain the action of other persons, the simple personal pro- 
noun, wiih et before it, is used in French. 

Ex. Nous avons dine, et vous? We have dined, have you ? 
Elle a promis de venir, et lui ? She has promised to come, 
will he? 
When the auxiliary verb To do is employed in repetition of 
other verbs, the latter must in French be repeated themselves. 



220 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. I see it pretty clearly, do you ? Afoi, je le vois assez 
cbiirement, le voyez-vous ? 
I believe it, do not you ? Moi je le crois, ne le croyez-vous 

pas ? 
Does she go to church now ? I believe she does, est-ce 
quelle va a Veglise maintenant ? Je crois qu'elle y va. 
When the auxiliary verb To be is used ellipticallv, without 
the adverb which ought to be used with it, the latter must be 
supplied in French. 

Ex. Is your sister here? Yes she is, est-ce que voire socur est 
ieif Oai, (lie est ici. 
Have you been there recently ? No, I have not, est-ce 
que vous y </ \ment? Iion,je »*y ai pas ilk. 



Fait*. 
The rerb /«/-■», To do or To make, also forms a very large 
number of compound verba, by being joined immediately to a 
noun, most of which are represented in English by simple 
verb*. Such are, for instance, 



j ire in a I </, 


To hurt. 


" :<' 


" pardon. 


'• part, 


" inform. 


" /./ ! 


" shave. 


" A/ 


•art. 


" //<-/ 


'" be creditable. 


14 d4»homtew t 


" disgrace. 


" tort. 


" wrong. 




'■ !. 




" show. 


" temr, 


" hand. 


I'M, 


*• eateem 



Ex. TV t>\st /nit in'il U l<i poitrint />/r sa chute, he has hurt 
bis chest bv his tall. 



VERBS. 221 

Prenez-donc garde, vous me faites mal au bras, but take 

care, you hurt my arm. 
Est-ce qiCon ne va pas luifaire grace? Is he not to be 

pardoned ? 
Je vous ferai voir ce que peutfaire un honnete homme, 1 
will show you what an honest man can do. 
Faire may also be followed by another verb in the infinitive 
and form with it a compound verb; in which case it is likewise 
generally represented by a simple verb in English. Such are, 
for instance, 

made). 



Faire faire, 


To order (to 


" sortir, 


" turn out. 


" venir, 


" send for. 


" payer, 


" charge. 


" entrer, 


" admit. 


" bouillir, 


" boil. 


" frire, 


« fry. 


" perir, 


" kill. 



Ex. Oil avez-vous fait faire cette belle robe? Where did you 
have that beautiful dress made ? 
II aurait fallu faire venir le medecin a Vinstant merne, 

the doctor ought to have been sent for at once. 
Aussitot que le courrier arrive, faites entrer, as soon as 
the courier comes, send him in. 

JVe faire que — literally, to do nothing but — serves in French 
to translate the English adverb Only, when it qualifies a verb. 
Ex. Je rHai fait que Ventrevoir dans la rue, I only caught a 
glimpse of her in the street. 
II ne fit qu'y toucher et Vobus eclata, he only touched it 
and the shell exploded. 

Faire, placed before an infinitive, which does not serve to 
form a compound verb gives to the second verb a passive 
sio-nification. 



222 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. II a fait copier ce beau tableau, lie has had this beautiful 
picture copied. 
On /era blanckir les murailles et peindre les boiseries, they 
will have the walls whitewashed and the wood-work 
painted. 
Suire, followed by an adjective, expresses an effort to repre- 
sent the quality conveyed by the latter. 

Ex. Faites-donc Pavare, on n'y croit pas, don't pretend to bo 
miserly, we don't believe it. 
II fail It savant, mais il est at ne peut }>lt<s ignorant, he 
pretend- to be learned, but he is ever s<> ignorant 
Faire, used impersonally, is the universal verb for all expres- 
sions referring to the Btate of the weather and its effects. 

Ex. .1 midi il jit chami, maintenani il fait frotd t at noon it 
- warm, now it is cold. 

I . .-urlir, il fait Imp crotti, you will 

not be able t<> go out, it is too muddy. 
11 f.i, i beau temps, Hair • I tee, it is fine weather, dear and 



Do you pretend n> be attended or are you really sot [should be 

sorry u> have hurt your feelings when 1 was only jesting. Fon will 

order a round table to be made, around which twelve pi nans <"iu be 

I : you will have it polished and sent home before l return. It 

(his morning, bul it has been cold sad windy since, 

ak the roads must be dry now. He courted several ladies 

time, and the eonsequenoe wss that be did not win the 

irered 1 » i — faithl. 

they would n<»t pardon him any mm-.-; they i'<-lt t leeply bow mnch 

i wronged them. It i- the custom In Prance, when nn Impor 
tnily, to inform all the friends of it by not 
by an Bdvertisement in the newspapers. Send for tin- a i 

him what yon want 
will b is ua 



VERBS. 223 

honest man, he will not charge you more than a fair price. I Lave 
only met him, I cannot say, therefore, that I am acquainted with him, 
out I should like very much to be presented to him. The cook asked 
me if she should boil or fry the meat for dinner, and I could not tell 
her what she ought to do. 



Aller and Venir. 

The French use the two verbs aller, to go, and venir, to come, 
to express an immediate future and an immediate past, the 
former corresponding in a general way to the English phrase, 
I am going to; the latter to the English phrase, I had just. 
Thus, the future itself becomes limited to any indefinite, future 
time ; whilst the use of aller implies that the future action is 
to take place immediately. In like manner, the past tense 
represents the past but vaguely, but the use of venir implies 
that it has elapsed but this very moment. 

Ex. Je vais lui ecrire un petit mot tout a, Vheure, I shall write 
him a few words instantly. 
II nous a dit quHl va sortir, he has told us that he is 

going out. 
Nous venons de rentrer et nous y serons de suite, we have 

but just come in, and we shall be there directly. 
lis venaient de s'endormir quand on les appela, they had 
just fallen asleep, when they were called. 

Aller is also used in French to express the English To be, in 
reference to health or to business. Hence the familiar phrases : 

Comment ca va-t-il? Merci, ca va bien. How are you? 

Thank you, I am pretty well. 
Et comment vont les affaires? Comme ci, comme ga. 

And how is business ? So, so. 
II va mieu.r. ce matin depuis quCon la saigne, he is better 

this morning since he has been bled. 



224 on the parts of a p^tence. 

Aller, when used in connection with parts of dress, means To 
become. 

Ex. Trouvez-vous que cette robe me va bien ? Do you think 
this dress is becoming to me ? 



Exercise. 
We had just dined when the ladies arrived, and fortunately there 
was enough left to provide for them : but we sent at once for the 
cook, and told him he must fry some chicken and boil some potatoes, 
because all the ladies liked that dish. When will you let me see that 
note? 1 will show it to you this instant, if you will promise me, 
solemnly, never to tell anybody that yon have read it. Are you going 
to write to your sister to-day, or must I do it for you'.' 1 shall do it 
directly, in order not to give you BO much trouble, for you have already 
been very kind in rendering me many services, and you have bat 
jasl now placed me under new obligations by lending me so large a 
Bum ot money. Does her new bat become her as well aa the one 1 
liked so much, when 1 saw hex for the first time? 1 cannol tell, for 1 

think that no hat Ifl rally becoming to her ; she is by far handsomest 

when she' has nothing on her head. What dress had she on when 
yon sat* her first ! I do nol remember that, hut it must bare been a 
very simple one, (brake had been very sick, and she was not 

w, l| th.n. Hon Is yiir patto a1 this morning? 1 am sorry to say lie 

l. I hope very certainly 
that he >\ih escape with hi.- lite. 



(MI A PTER V I 



ADVERBS 
Adverbs, which originally bad their names from the bet 
that they principally served to qualify verba, as adjectives 
qualify nouns, may - qualify adjectives or another 

adverb as well Thej express a manner or a circumstance, and 
vary, therefore, in kind as mnoh as the latter vary. 



ADVERBS. 225 

Ex. Ce roi etalt vraiment digne d'etre assis sur un tronc, this 
king was truly worthy of being seated on a throne. 
II etait continuellement occupe des soins du gouvemement, 
he was unceasingly engaged in the cares of govern- 
ment. 
Son nom vivra etemellement, his name will live forever. 
This power to qualify various words is, however, not the 
same with all adverbs. Thus, tris, si, aussi, and tout can 
modify only adjectives, participles and adverbs, and not verbs, 
while du moins, au moins, au plus, and davantage modify only 
verbs, and tout a fait only participles. 

Ex. Je Vai connu plus longtemps que vous, I have known him 
longer than you. 
II n'auruit pu desirer davantage, he could not have wished 

for more. 
Est-ce que vraiment il est tout a fait gate? Is it really 
altogether spoiled ? 
Adverbs have generally a meaning complete in themselves ; 
ptill, there are a few which, to complete their signification, 
require the addition of a regimen preceded by a preposition. 
Ex. II salt toujours parler convenablement au sujet, he knows 
always how to speak appropriately. 
Ilfaut aimer Dieu preferablement a tout, we ought to 

love God before all things. 
II ne peut pas vivre confvrmement a son etat, he cannot 
live in accordance with his rank. 
Adverbs of quantity, being considered like nouns, require 
the preposition de ; except lien, which is followed by the partitive 
article. 

Ex. Elle avuit infiniment d' 'esprit, she was extremely witty. 
Est-ce qu'il y aura bien du monde a cettefete? Will there 
be a great many people at that party ? 
Adverbs ending in ment — the rules on their formation have 



226 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

been given in the First Part of this Grammar — have this pe- 
culiarity : that they always express the mood or manner, and 
consequently may form comparatives and superlatives, precisely 
as the adjectives from which they are derived. 

Ex. 7/ a parle plus vivement que jamais auparavant, he spoke 
in a more lively manner than ever before. 
La robe fat fade le plus Uigamment du monde, the dress 
was made in the most elegant manner. 

Bien, well, ma/, badly, and pen, little, are the only adverbs 
which form the comparative degrees anomalously, making 

mieux, better, and le mieux, best. 

w o rse, and le p it, worst 
moins y less, and U rnouu, least 

Ex. JSlU est le m'u us miee quand tilt tat le moins parte, she 
i> best dressed when she is least adorned 
j n m> plait le mieux m tux, e'eet lew modeetie, what 
I like best in them is their modesty. 

T6t makes a double comparative, plus tdt for sooner, and 

plutdi for lather. 

].... I : ii vttiir plu , yOO ought to 

have come sooner than the other.-. 

its pluttl 7 ner met plana, I would 

rather die than give 1 1 j » my | 

T't alone, i> hardly ever used now, though t't <>n t.ini answers. 

for tli MMC "r luter. 

ipletive, t" j 
and emphasis to the verb, as in the oso made ofveuillea Lim, as 
sined. 

Ex. T< nt I' VOulexpoa, I see (indeed) that 

yon do not wish it. 



ADVERBS. 257 

PLACE OF ADVERBS. 

The adverb is placed immediately after the verb it qualifies, 
if the latter is used in a simple tense ; but, in compound tenses, 
it may be placed between the auxiliary and the participle 
past. 

Ex. II dit franchement tout ce qu'il pense, he tells all he thinks 
openly. 
Savez-vous sHl a parfaitement reussi ? Do you know if 
he has succeeded entirely ? 

Eie/r, yesterday, may be placed before the verb or after it, but 
can never stand between the auxiliary and the participle. 
Ex. Hier nous y alldmes — or, Nous y alldmes 7iier, we went there 
yesterday. 

Compound adverbs, however, consisting of adverbs with a 
regimen or nouns preceded by prepositions, cannot be placed 
before the auxiliary and participle. 

Ex. Celui quijuge a la hate juge au kasard, those who judge 
rashly judge at haphazard. 

The adverbs bien, mal, mieux, pis, and a few others of like 
character, are always placed between the auxiliary and the 
participle, and may also stand before as well as after the 
infinitive which they qualify. 

Ex. Vous avez mal fait en le lui disant, you have done wrong 
by telling him. 
Partoutfai ete mieux repu que je n 1 avals espere, every- 
where I have been better received than I expected. 
Le plus grand bonheur est de bien /aire son devoir, the 
greatest happiness is to do one's duty well. 
Adverbs generally are not repeated before every word they 
quality, with the exception of si, aussl, plus and autant, which 
require to be thus repeated. 

Ex. II a ete si bon, si sage, qu'il n'a pas son pareil, he was so 
wise and good, that the like of him did not exist. 



228 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Lane est aussi humble, aussi patient, que le cheval est fie r 
et impetueur, the ass is as humble and patient as the 
horse is proud and impetuous. 
A few adverbs can, in negative constructions, be placed 
before pas or point and done, therefore, must be so placed. 

Ex. Vous ne ni'avez done pas obeU Then you have not 
obeyed me \ 

Si, aussi, tant and autant. 
Si and aussi mean both so or as, and tant and autant mean 
both so or as much and as many ; but the forma aussi and autant 
can only be used in comparisons, while n and tant serve mainly 
in exclamations and negative sentences. 

Ex. Get ptainrs s , tranquilles, these pleas- 

ures are as pure as they are quiet. 
J\i<in- Horace autant qui je V admire, 1 love Elorace as 

nuieh as I admire him. 
Let gent riehet eont-Ue n heureuxt Are the rich so very 
happy I 

•ia : J, Vai tant aimie/ When 
she v rimed : 1 loved her bo dearly ! 

Autant mi . by b< tug placed utter tho 

adjective it qualii 

El. ' in . this quiiiu 

ratal 

So, h :i"t be translated by ti, but its 

plaee is Bupplii ■: '<■;■ 

■ rtonne, lie is 
always bo busy tha obody. 

Si ezolndea all < superlative after it, with 

the exception of bien. which may he used between n and .* 
participle past 

;\ kind that everybody love« her, tile Mi si 
a, iii. //. ', [ M tOUt i< BR 



ADVERBS. 229 

This work is so well done that it praises its master, cet 
ouvrage est si bien fait qyCil loue le maitre. 
In negative comparisons aussi cannot very well be used, when 
it has the meaning of Not any more, and its place is then 
supplied by non ptlus. 

Ex. II rCa pas montre non plus un grand courage, he also has 
not shown much courage. 
Vous rCavez pas reussi, ni moi non 2^1 us, you have not 
succeeded, nor I either. 



Exercise. 

He had lent me about a thousand dollars, and I have not returned 
more than half of it ; but it has not been in my power, or I -would have 
repaid more. She is as lovely as she is beautiful ; and that is a very 
rare combination, for the body is not always as much gifted as the 
mind. He is so simple a man that he never suspects anybody, and he 
gives to the bad as much credit for what they say as to the good. He 
was so very busy yesterday that I would have done wrong to inter- 
rupt him then, but I hope I shall be able to see him to-day. When he 
had well dined he felt in such good-humor, that he would grant 
favors to as many as came to ask. You spoil your children, for I have 
observed that the worse they are the more you indulge them, merely 
for the purpose of avoiding the trouble it would give you to correct 
them. Even when she is most happy she has a sad look in her eyes, 
and she appears troubled when she is least thoughtful. Friendship is 
so precious a thing that it ought not to be lavished ; it ought to be 
cherished as much as the most precious good we possess. He was so 
very benevolent, that he gave away the little money he owned, and 
even distributed his clothes among the poor. 



Beaucoup and bien. 

Beaucoup, from the Latin bella copia, and bien, from the Latin 
bene, differ but little in meaning, bien being only a strengthened 
beaveovp. They both represent the English plural as well as 



230 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

s'ngular, meaning Much and many, a great deal and a great 
many. They differ, however, essentially in their regimen, 
beuucoup being always followed by de, ban by the partitive 
article. 

Ex. Beaucoup de gens Font vu el entcndu, many people havo 
seen and heard it. 
Je Vai entendu dire a bum des gens, I have heard a great 
many people say so. 

The English phrase Many a, is translated without the indefinite 
an', 
Ex. Beauc "ip deft mimx s'y sont tromp&S, many a -woman has 
been deceived by thai 

Beaucoup, when used with a comparative, may be placed 
either before it, <>r, connected by the preposition de, after it, 
when it corresponds to the English By far. 

Ex. I lueoup plus savant que lui — or, Voue Utt 

1. 1, <i< beaucoup, you are far more 
learned than fa 

It may also 1"' placed between the auxiliary and the past 

participle, when it i- used emphatically. 

.1 would have liked it very 
much. 
Vorj well, is translated simply 1>\ 

I like him very well, je Palme b Stti 
Jl k • expresses the English 

l';ir !r..m it. 

Pi . v,, U 

tliink von have paid me : Ear from it. 

1 . - . : far Erom 

:. ,|.|._\. 

Its comparative plus is used, like moin* and n 
titiuii to express b comparison, corresponding t<> the Engli-h 



ADVERBS. '20 J 

The more — the more, etc. ; in which case it must be followed 
by the verb directly, and not, as in English, by the adjective. 
Ex. Plus on en voit plus on Vadmire, the more one sees of it 
the more one admires it. 
Plus il grandit plus il devient laid, the more he grows 
the uglier he becomes. 



INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS. 

The English adverb How is translated into French by a great 
variety of forms, according to the meaning it may happen to 
have or the words with which it is connected. 

How, inquiring the manner, etc., is translated by comment. 
Ex. Comment vous Hes-vous parte depuis? How have you 
been since? 
Voulez-vous savoir comment on doit fairc? Do you wish 
to know how to do it ? 

Comme, on the contrary, does not refer to the manner so 
much, but simply serves to connect two verbs. 

Ex. Voyez comme il travaille / See how (much) he works! 

How, in exclamations, is translated by que, which, followed 
by de, means also How much ! and How many ! 

Ex. Que cette parole me doit &tre douce! How sweet that 
word ought to be to me ! 
Quelle est jolie en depit de son age ! How pretty she is> 

in spite of her age ! 
Que de batailles gagnees et que de villes prises! How 
many battles won, and how many cities taken ! 

It will be seen, from these examples, that in French the 
interrogative adverb comment or que cannot, as in English, be 
followed immediately by an adjective or adverb, but requires 
that the verb should come immediately after it. 



232 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Ex. I cannot tell yon bow old she is, je ne saurais i\us dire 
quel est son Age. 
How few men are really happy ! Quil y a peu dliommes 
qui sont vraimcnt heureux! 

How so ? is translated by comment crtctf 

Quand, which can be used relatively as a conjunction, as 
well as interrogatively as an adverb, means not only When? 
but, with the conditional, also Even it'; in which case it is often 
accompanied by vieme. 

Ex. Qnuitd piendree-vous me voir a la campagne t When will 
you come and see me in the country ? 
Quand vous me ha'iriez, je in me plaindrais pas, even if 

yon should hate me, I would not complain. 
Je le/erai quand mime U m>- couterait l<i vie i I wili do it 
even thongfa it should coat me my life. 
Pourquoi repreaenta the English Why, wherefore, and what, 
•with for at the end v( tl. 

Ex, /'• urq dii hier t "Why did yon 

oof tell ii. i\ .' 

/' . • . i il /'.( fait t Could you 

tell me what be did it I 

: itivr questions, Why is frequently rendered by <pu »r. 
tt ' Why did you not tell mel 



• 



wen many soldi) n who l i"l much more genine, hut I havo 

11 one who had mora true courage than your Mend. That 

\> why I esteemed bin ao much; and I may add that I like him alao 

much, although I hara asen him but little. She la »ery fur from 

she intenda going to 
i eat deal of money, 

and she fhlnki there before he dies. When was. 

lit, in which yonr jrounger brother feD 1 \\ 



ADVERBS. 233 

elder brother who died there ; and I do not see why you ask me such 
a question at all. How long will be your stay in this city, or have 
you not yet decided how many days you will spend here 1 How full 
of wisdom these verses are ! They surprise me every time I read 
them ; and even if they were not the work of so famous an author, 
they would not fail to be admired wherever they are read. Why did 
you not tell her so ? She would have understood it perfectly, and you 
would not feel the remorse that now troubles your conscience. The 
more I see of them the less I like them : they are not like those 
people who gain your esteem the better you learn to know them. 



NEGATIVE ADVERBS. 

The simple negation in French is non, which corresponds to 
the English No, and can never be used with a verb. It may, 
however, be placed before settlement, only, when followed by 
que, and it may follow certain verbs, like oui, when connected 
with them by que. 

Ex. Non, Madame, je rHy consentirai jamais, no, Madam, I will 
never consent to it. 
Elle est non seulement vieille, mais laide, she is not only 

old, but ugly. 
E«t-ce que vraiment il a dit que non ? Did he really 
say no ? 

All other negative adverbs require the addition of ne in its 
proper place before the verb, because they are all taken from 
Latin nouns, which in themselves have no negative signification. 
Thus, pas comes from the Latin passus, and point from punclum ; 
rien from rem, and jamais from jam mar/is. 

It has already been mentioned that the particle ne is re- 
quired whether the negative adverb precede or follow the verb. 
Ex Jamais la fortune n'afait autant pour un homme, never 
has fortune done as much for a man. 
Rien ne me plairait mieux que de vous y voir, nothing 
would please me better than to see you there. 



234 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Aucune de ces dames ne vous a reconnn, not one of these 
ladies has recognized you. 

Pas and point both represent the English Not, but the latter 
is the stronger, approaching the meaning of the English Not at 
all, or when there is a distinction made between the quantity and 
the whole material, in which case point applies to the former 
and pan to the latter. 

Ex. Vous vous irompez, il n\t point reussi, you are mistaken, 
he has not at all succeeded. 
Je ne prendrai point de the\jc n\n prends pas, I will take 
no tea, I do not drink tea. 

Pai may be used without ne for the English Not, before 
adjectives or adverbs; and point is used without ne, but fol- 
lowed by </<'. like an adverb of quality, for the English No, be- 
fore noun-. 

. Bow is the coffee I Not very good. Comment est lee 

No tax - ai L no i to 1 Point de taxes et point de vitot 

On the other hand, pas and point are omitted and ne alone 

cpress the negative, when tl stent given t" the 

Jficiently clearly expressed by another 

WO!tl. 

Ex. /' rlira d< .' , he will nol go out for a week. 

,1 ),\i dit mot, daring all this time 
he bat word. 

t/outte, I assure you, 1 cannot 

. it < 1 do H"t understand it at all). 

They are also omitted after the verbs oser, to dare, 

hen there i> id emphasis on the 
ion. 

r, he will never in his 
life d . ,':i it. 



ADVERBS. 235 

Elle n'a cessS de me tourmenter, she has plagued me in- 
cessantly. 

Je ne saurais vous dire combien je vous plains, I cannot 
tell you how much I pity you. 

They are, finally, omitted after qui in exclamations. 
Ex. Qui ne serait touche par un tel spectacle ! Who would 
not be moved by such a sight ! 

Point, with the infinitive, may be placed before or after it. 
Ex. Pour ne point souffrir — or, Pour ne souffrir point, in 

order not to suffer at all. 
Que, with the negative ne, has the meaning of the English 
Only, when it qualifies a verb, and que must precede the word 
to be limited. 

Ex. Vous n'avez qu'a dire et vous Vaurez, you have only to 
say so, and you shall have it. 
Je ne veux sortir que pour une demi-heure, I only want to 

go out for half an hour. 
II n , ai?ne que moi, he loves me only. 

When Only expresses a sufficiency, it is rendered by seulement. 
Ex. Sifetais seulement major, je serais content, if I were only a 
major, I would be content. 

Guere, with the negative ne, represents the English Scarcely 
or Hardly, in connection with a verb. 

Ex. Je ne Vaurais guere reconnu, sHl ne rrfavait parle, I would 
have scarcely recognized him, if he had not spoken to 
me. 
II rfy a guere d'autres gens dans ce pays, there are hardly 
any other people in this country. 

The numerous cases in which ne alone is used, without 
giving a negative meaning to the verb, have already been men- 
tioned in connection with the different classes of words which 
require it, as comparatives, verbs of doubt and fear, etc. 



236 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Plus, with the negative ne, has the meaning of No more 
and Xo longer, when the latter does not literally mean Not a 
longer time, in which case it would have to be translated plus 
longtemps. 

Ex. Dites-moi adieu, vous ne me reverrez plus, tell me good 
bye, you will never see me again. 
Je ne peux plus, mes forces sonl epuisees, I can do it no 

longer, my strength is exhausted. 
Vous tCauriez j»t$ i/u marcher j'lus longtemps you ought 

not to have walked any longer. 
Not airain, can never be represented in French by pas encore, 
as foreigners are apt to do ; the simple plus expressing the words 
Pat i won means Not yet 
Ex. Jt in- 1'iii pat tneon t reparaUra plus, I have 

not Been it, and it will nut appeal again. 
Ei<<- - an adverb of quantity, and means 

Some mora. 
Ex. Vow </<• VargetUt You want some more 

money '.' 



ExKHClSK. 



I can never believe those who haw once told me a (ktoehood, and 
nothing will persuade me that a man who ace, may not do 

it again, « hi d it suits him. fcfy pati< nt Is not bq well to day ; he was 
- morning than he has yel been, and I doubt that he oan 
recover, I oonld hardly believe thai he would commit so bass an 
action : nobodg I him of being a mean man. and it 

would surprise me rerymuob if it should be discovered, after all, that 
hf has dece i ved everybody so long, I believe you will Bnd at the 
trial, which has only commenced yet, that the facts arc not only 
proved, but supported by the Btrongeel evidence. Several w 

|y, ami they have proved every thing, 

while hil tablish his innocence. 

I know that at d listen to the Bosptoiona, nor 

[either, and II Ij the reports in the oewi 

turned from Burope he is more conceited than he ever was, 
and it will require much time to make him come hack tohisg i 



PREPOSITIONS. 237 

No Pope ! was the cry of the early reformers ; but afterwards that 
was not enough, and numerous other demands of a similar kind were 
made, until it began to be feared that nothing of the Holy Church 
would survive. Do not send for any wine ; I do not drink any. and 
your water is so pure and fresh, that I shall be perfectly content. 



CHAPTER VII. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



Prepositions have their name from the fact that they are 
invariably placed before the noun, pronoun, or verb to which 
they belong. Their general purpose is to represent the relations 
existing between two words in the same sentence. Hence 
they can neither be used by themselves nor placed at the end 
of the sentence, as is done in English. 

Ex. I cannot tell you, I was not near, je ne saurais vous le 
dire,je n* etuis pas pres de Id. 
What was it he spoke of? Qu'est-ce que c'etait de quoi 
il parla ? 

A number of so-called prepositions, however, are, in French 
as in English, adverbs also, and in that capacity they may be 
used without a regimen. 

Ex. D'abord on a pris le the, et apres, on a danse, first they 
they took tea, and then they danced. 

It must be borne in mind that simple prepositions are placed 
immediately before the noun, while compound prepositions 
require another preposition — 

De, when they consist already of a preposition and a noun ; 
a, when they express a tendency or an aim. 

Ex On ne le voit jamais sans manteau, he is never seen with* 
out a cloak. 



23S OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

On Fa fait President au lieu de son pere, he has been 

made President instead of bis father. 
Ft s'est hasarde jusqu'aux injures, he has ventured even 

upon insults. 

Other prepositions can have a second preposition for their 
regimen; thus de may be used before apres, entre, avec, ekes 
pres and aupres. 

Ex. Ces personnes sont trades d'apres nature, these characters 
arc drawn from nature. 
77 >/ en <t pt u d*t ntre i ux <jni raiment, there are few among 

them who love him. 
Les homines pres de mourir se montrent ttls qirils sont, 
men about to die show themselves as they are. 

Hore\ outside, may be used familiarly without the additional 
proposition de, which it generally requires. 

Ex. lis demeuraient longtemps kore <lc la ville, they lived a 
long time outride of tin.- town. 

hoWUM est foot hor* /•/ Ixirnirc, this man has lodg- 

le the city-walls. 

The prepositions de, </ and en must be repeated before every 
noun, pronoun or verb which is their regimen. 

Ex, I '< general fui eombU cThonneur et de gloire, this general 
was overwhelmed with honor and glory. 
// dnii la et aux midecine, he owes his life to 

< ....1 and ; 
II tra/iq . he deals wholesale and 

retail. 
All other preposition! are repeated only when the two regi- 
mens which they govern have an oppo m- or widely different 
meaning. 

us lea maim de A/ Providence^ under 
the c\ e and in the hands of Provkl 



PREPOSITIONS. 239 

JVos devoirs envers Dieu et envers la patrie, our duty to 

God and our country. 
II passe sa vie dans la mollesse et Voisivete, lie spends his 

life in effeminacy and idleness. 



SPECIAL REMARKS ON SOME PREPOSITIONS. 

Avant and devant mean both Before, but the former relates 
only to time and rank, the latter only to place. 

Ex. JVous irons avant vous, si vous le voulez, we will go first, 
if you wish it. 
Prenez place devant moi, s'il vous plait, take a seat before 
me, if you please. 
Before a verb in the infinitive, avant ought to be followed by 
que de, although modern authors frequently employ avant que 
only. 

Ex. Avant que a'ecrire ilfaut apprendre a penser, before writing 

we must learn to think. 
Chez, from the Latin casa, retains from its origin the idiom- 
atic meaning of the English, At the house of, or At, followed 
by a person's name in the possessive case. 

Ex. Je ne vous ai jamais vu chez moi, I have never seen you 
at my house. 
Mais je vous ai rencontre bien des fois chez le docteur, 
but I have met you very often at the doctor's. 
Hence chez, with personal pronouns especially, expresses the 
English word Home, for which there is no other equivalent iu 
French. 

Ex. Est-ce que vous serez chez vous ce soir? Will you be at 
home to-night ? 
Madame la Comtesse est-elle chez elle ? Is the Countess 

at home ? 
Apres avoir ecrit les lettres vous pouvez aller chez vous, 
after having written the letters you can go home. 



2-iO ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Dans and en have both the same signification, in ; but en 
expresses it in a vague and general sense, and hence is not 
accompanied by the article, except in a few technical terms, 
whilst dans has always the meaning of Into or Within, and is 
invariably accompanied by the article. 

Ex. En tous temps, en tous lieur, la vertu est sublime, at all 
times, in all places, virtue is sublime. 
// a vicu dix ans en Italic sans apprendre Cltalien, he has 

lived ten years in Italy without learning Italian. 
Ma sorur etait dans sa chambre, my sister was in her 

room. 
ISentu/iti a m<ir<-lti: tea troupes dans Paris, the enemy 

has marched his troops into Paris. 
Cela eat arrive" on en Jain ou en JailUt, that happened 

either in June or in July. 
Demain, noua entrerona dona le moia de Juin, to-morrow 
we shall enter into the month of June. 
From thi> peculiarity i the fact that it serves, h 

connection with a camber of nouns, to form adverbial expres- 
sions, signifying a manner of doing or being. 

K\. ./. i iju'illi toil in bonne *"/</»', I do not think 

shu i- in g 1 health. 

(ja i mil eette chanson en muaiqut t Who has 

set thi- song to m 

r,n , i, bfWteillett Do vou prefer bottled 

wine | 

The fen cases in which m i< followed by the article are the 
ing : 

En /'-/// or in Vat a" . in the year ; 

01 i n hi . in the absence nnd in the 

Ei< fair, in the air; 

/,V n these terms; 

mote, in these words ; 



PREPOSITIONS. 24-1 

and in the titles Maitre es (instead of en les) Arts, Master of 
Arts, and Docteur es Sciences, Doctor of Sciences. 

When dans and en are employed in definitions of time, they 
have an entirely different signification : dans expresses the 
time between now and the beginning of an action, en means the 
time between the beginning and the end of the action. 

Ex. II arrivera ici dans trois jours, he will reach here three 
days hence. 
II arrivera la en trois jours, it will take him three days 
to get there. 
En has also the peculiar meaning of like, in the manner of, in 
the character of. 

Ex. II me traite en frere plutot qu'en maitre, he treats me 
rather like a brother than like a master. 
Dans toute cette affaire il a agi en honnete homme, in this 

whole affair he has acted like an honest man. 
JElle etait deguisee en dame du Moyen-Age, she was dressed 
in the character of a lady of the Middle Ages. 

The English in, before the word Manner, and whenever with 
can be substituted for it, is not translated by en, but by de. 
Ex. In this manner we shall never come to an end of it, de cette 
maniere nous n'en viendrons jamais a bout. 
She said to him in a tender voice, elie lui dit d'une voix 
tendre. 
Never in my life, and Nothing in the world, are in like manner 
translated by jamais de ma me, and Hen au monde. 

Dessas, dessous (pronounced as if the first e was mute), above 
and below, dedans and dehors, within and without, belong to 
that class of prepositions which may also be used as adverbs. 
The difference can be easily ascertained, as they will have a 
regimen when they are used as prepositions, and stand alone as 
adverbs. 

Ex. Je Vai chcrche dessus et dessous. la table, I have looked for 
it on the table and under it. 



242 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

// est moitie dedans, ?uoitie dehors, he is half inside and 

half outside. 
Elle est allee dehors voir s'il y a qnelqiCun, she has gone 

out to see if there is anybody there. 

They may be preceded by one of the following prepositions — 
dc, a and pur ; in which case they are followed by de. 

Ex. II ceut toujours tfelever au-dessus de ses igaux, he always 
wants to rise above his equals. 
// est riche, U est jeune, et par de?sus de cela il est beau, 
he is young, he is rich, and besides that he is hand- 
so in e. 



Eziroisr. 



Who was that woman w] I before you at the theatre 

last night '.' She had oome there half an hoar before you. and seemed 
lent to see yon oome. I will lex you know before writing 
to her, .-" that you can tell me i me to communicate to 

her, in ease you Bhould not write to li<r yourself before that time. 
She is still, 1 think, at her uncle's, l»ui after a month or two she told 
me she would gpo hack to her aunt's, where >h is perfectly at home. 
They are not at home at this hour, the s rvam Bays, but they will 
return a few minutes before dinner. Had she gone Into the house 
when you saw her this morning, or was she BtUl walking In the 
garden, and gathering flowers for a bonquel e born either 

rmanyor In Holland, bn1 theyspenl nearly their whole life in 
the I In rain did he try to gain his ear; he would not 

listen to him t'"r a mora at, and after a little while h<> went back, and 
locked himself In his study- '' yen i inn 

the basket, put some of them upon it, and - wDl and room 



/ nost invariably used with another preposi- 

boa after it. which, wjlfa a We may say, 

In will pin - 
hell. 



PREPOSITIONS. 243 

L'eau lui monta jusque par dessus la tete, the watei rose 

as high as above her head. 
J'aime ses talents, ses vertus et jusqu'a ses defauts, I love 

his talents, his virtues and even his faults. 

Poets take the liberty of adding an s to jusque whenever it 
suits their metre to make two syllables of the word. 
Ex. Vous la louez, Madame, jusques au del, you praise her, 
Martam, to the skies. 

It has already been stated that jusque, used as a conjunction 
before verbs, requires the additional ce que. 

Ex. Attendee jusqu'a ce que faurai fini ma lettre, wait until I 

have finished my letter. 

Sans, without, has two peculiarities — it is used without an 

article, unless there is special emphasis on the article, and it 

may be followed either by ni or by et, in spite of its negative 

signification ; but with et, it must be repeated before each noun 

Ex. Sans crainte ni pudeur, sans force ni vertu, without fear 

or shame, without power or virtue. 

Elle y est allee sans pere et sans mari, she went there 

without father and husband. 
Sans la crainte de Voffenser, je Vaurais fait, without the 
fear of offending him, I would have done it. 
When followed by a verb, sans requires an additional que, 
unless it be .in the infinitive, which being a noun requires no 
conjunction. 

Ex. Sans que la France meritdt de reproches, without France's 
deserving any reproach. 
Jl boit du vin sans y mettre de Veau, he drinks wine 
without putting any water into it. 

Avec, also, omits the article, but only Avhen it stands before 
nouns expressive of moral qualities, with which it forms an 
adverb. 

Ex. B ne poitrra s'en tirer avec honneur, he will not be able to 
* get out of it honorably. 



244: ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

On petit (outfaire aiec de Vargent, one can do every thing 
with money. 
Par, also, can be used -without an article iu adverbial expres- 
sions, and when it is followed by a noun taken in a partitive 
sense. • 

Ex. On fait plus pur la douceur que par la force, one can do 
more by gentleness than by violence. 
ll voulut mi /< prendre par force, he wanted to take it 

forcibly from me. 
Ctx pauvrea gens rnouraient <?<• /aim par miUi e r t , these 
poor people starved to death by the thousand. 

De, a and p<>ur are the three principal prepositions in use 
with the infinitive of verba, and present some difficulty in their 
use, as they do not always correspond to like expressions in 
English. It lias already been explained, that the English word 
to is by no mean.- always a preposition, but roost frequently 
nothing more than a nine sign of the verbal character of the 
verb-word, when it remains, of course, untranslated. Never- 
theless, it baa also the meanings of In order to, For the purpose 

of, ••!'•.. and in BUCh cases it baa to be translated by the proper 

preposition in French, 

/',.„,• repi the sense of In order to, and is also 

need after all expressions, noun-, adjectives or adverbs, which 
convey the idea of sufficiency. 

Ex. Silt >■ pour vou8 /aire pktitir, she has done 

, pleasure. 
tela snjnit pour U payer/ Is thai enough to 
pay him .' 
II Hi asm Bitty rfait celt* bivue t be is simple 

enough to have made that blonder. 
.1 expresses always more or less distinctly the end or purpose, 
an 1 frequently, as ha- been stated elsewhere, gives a passive 
signification to Be verb it pn ■ 

i; v /■/ • bon a manger ou a quoi tert-ilt Is this 

..i « bal i- it good for \ 



PREPOSITIONS. 



245 



C'est une chose qui est beaucoup a craindre, that is a thing 
much to be feared. 

It is also used after words with a superlative meaning. 

Ex. Je crois que fetais le premier a vous le dire, I believe T 

was the first to tell you. 
De is used in all other cases not thus provided for, except 
after verbs which are used without any preposition, like verbs 
of motion, etc. 

Ex. Elle est impatiente de revoir set patrie, she is impatient to 
see her country again. 
II est notre devoir de venir a son secours, it is our duty 
to come to his aid. 
When an infinitive is tbe object of another verb, de is placed 
before it as direct object, and a, when it is the indirect object. 
Ex. H ne ml a pas etc permis de la revoir, I have not been per- 
mitted to see her again. 
Je Vai invite a venir nous voir, I have invited him to come 
and see us. 

As a matter of reference, lists of those verbs are given here, 
which require either no prp.nosition at all before an infinitive 
or such as differ from those used in Eno-lish. 





VERBS USED 


WITHOUT PREPOSITION. 


Affirmer 


to affirm 


daigner 


to deign 


aimer mieux 


to prefer 


declarer 


to declare 


alter 


to go 


deposer 


to bear witi 


apercevoir 


to perceive 


desirer 


to wish 


assurer 


to assure 


devoir 


to owe 


avouer 


to confess 


ecouter 


to listen to 


compter 


to intend 


entendre 


to hear 


confesser 


to confess 


envover 


to send 


considerer 


to behold 


ipier 


to spy 


courir 


to run 


esperer 


to hope 


eroire 


to believe 


faire 


to make 



246 



ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 



falloir 
ftimagin&i 

luisser 

mener 

nier 

vbsercer 

oser 

emir 

paraUre 

penser 

[>r'tt ndre 



8'ilJJU ';,' 

/• de 
met de 



to be necessary 

to imagine 

to allow, to suffer 

to lead 

to deny 

t<> observe 

to dare 

to hear 

to appear 

to imagine 

to be al>le 

to pretend 

to prefer 

t<> pro! 

to pub! 

to remember 



rapport* r 
reconnoitre 

regarder 
retourner 
re emir 
$<i coir 
aembl&r 
eentir 
8>>nh< liter 
aoutenir 
temoigner 
se trotie.r 
toloir tnit nx 
m n ir 
roir 
vouiotr" 



to report 

to acknowledge 

to look at 

to return 

to ccme back 

to know 

to seem 

to feel 

to wish 

to maintain 

to testify 

to bappen to be 

to be I) tier 

to come 

to see 

to be willing 



•wnu it BBQjOIBfl de BSFOKB .VN INFINITIVE. 

to accuse of ft 

to grieve at de 



to leave off 



grieved at t dSeetpfn r th- 
ru warn 
^ to take into one's d.'t ■urn, r dt 

i bead '•' im t de 

■ nir de 
to blame 

■ ■ 



f.-r 
to char 
real 

t.i 000 ■ 

■ 

"un- 
to cball 
to m.i'v 

off sc f 



: r de 
<l 



to deepair 

to rave at 
to dissuade 

minue 
to deny 

t0 forbear 
uado 

to doabl 
to endeavor 
to baatea 
t.i be vexed at 
to be frightens 1 

at 

!l 
at 

atulate 

!t0 llatt. r 
self 



PREPOSITIONS. 



247 



frimir de 
gemir de 
gener de 
gronder de 
hair de 
se hasarder de 
se hater de 

s'indigner de 

jouir de 
lower de 
manquer de 
menacer de 
se passer de 
se piquer de 
plaindre de 



to shudder at 

to lament 

to constrain 

to scold for 

to hate for 

to venture 

to hasten 

to be exasperat- 
ed at 

to enjoy 

to praise for 

to fail 

to threaten 

to do without 

to pride in 

to pity for 
prendre garde de to take care not soupgonner de 
prescrire de to prescribe se souvenir de 

presser de to urge 

se presser de to hasten 
presumer de to conjecture 
prier de to desire 

protester de to protest 

And all other verbs corresponding to English verbs which are 
followed by the prepositions of, from, with or about. 



punir de 

se rebwter de 

se rejouir de 
remercier de ) 
rendre grace de ) 
se repentir de 
reprendre de \ 
reprimander de \ 
se ressouvenir de 
rire de 
rougir de 
se scandaliser de 
sommer de 
se soucier de 
soufrir de 



suffire de (im- 
personal) 

supplier de 
trembler de 



to punish 

ito be discouraged 
at 
to rejoice at 

to thank for 

to repent 

to chide for 

to remember 
to laugh at 
to blush at 
to be offended at 
to summon 
to care for 
to suffer 
to suspect 
to remember 

to suffice 

to entreat 
to tremble 



VERBS WHICH REQUIRE a BEFORE AN INFINITIVE. 



Aboutir d 
aider d 
aimer d 
apprendre d 
avoir d 
avoir peine d 
balancer d 
c-hereher d 
concourir d 
condescendre d 



to end in 

to help in 

to like 

to learn 

to have 

to be hardly able 

to hesitate 

to try 

to co-operate in 

to condescend to 



consister d 
conspirer d 
contribuer d 
co titer d 
demander a 

demeurer d 

disposer d 
donner d 
engager d 



to consist of 
to agree together 
to contribute to 
to cost 
to ask 

to put too much 
[ time in 
to prepare 
to give 
to prevail upon 



24S 



ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 



enlutrdir d 
enseigner d 

etre d 

e. wetter d 
, ,•••//, r d 

! 

're a 
r d 

■';■ a 



to encourage 
^ to teach (a pres- 
\ ent participle) 
( to be (as explain- 
~l ed page 114.) 

to excel in 

to excite 

to exhort 

to hesitate 
/m to 

to show 

to succeed in 

to think of 

in 
— t in 

[- to take pleasure in 



porter a 
-!■■ a 
ft rvir d 

ttrder d 

i /■ d 
prendre garde d 

■ r d 

ripnrjni r d 
t. „ir d 

travail 



to lead 

to succeed in 

to serve 

to think of 

to long for 

to tend 

to urge 

to take care 

to invite 

to renounce 

to be repugnant 

to insist 

to work at 

to aim at 



'. I i ■ >M TH08H 
l.isil : 

to praifi 
to grieve tor to slander 

to hum rust 
to gi 
■ 

to pride in 
to profit by 
i to bi 

/ at 

to thank for 
cant 

< to remember 
to In 
r at to blnsfa at 

upon 
d to be offended ut 
t informer dc to inquire af rveai 

toenjo; r ir de 





PREPC 


►SITIONS. 


249 


se saucier tie 


to care for 




rto call, to give tlie 


souffrir de 


to suffer by 


traiter de 


} title of 


se souvenir de 


to remember 


user de 


to use 


subsister de 


to live upon 






Aboutir d 


to end in 


pourvoir d 


to provide for 


compatir d 


to sympathize with preluder d 


to prelude 


contrevenir d 


to infringe 


prendre garde 


d to take care of 


convenir d 


to suit 


proceder d 


to set about 


deplaire d 


to displease 


remedier a 


to remedy 


deroger d 


to derogate from 


resister d 


to resist 


desobeir d 


to disobey 


ressembler d 


to look like 


ecliapper d 


to escape from 


songer d 


to think of 


excetter d 


to excel in 


subvenir d 


to relieve 


manquer d 


to fail in 


succeder d 


to succeed 


nuire d 


to prejudice 


suffire d 


to be sufficient for 


obeir d 


to obey 


survivre d 


to survive 


obi'ur d 


to obviate 


tenir d 


not to give up 


pardonner a 


to pardon 


tirer d 


to shoot, to fire at 


parvenir a 


to attain 


iravaiUer d 


to work about 


penser d 


to think of 


viser d 


to aim at 


plaire d 


to please 







The following verbs may be used with or without the pre- 
position a before nouns and pronouns. 

applaudir to applaud persuader to persuade 

insulter to insult satisfaire to satisfy 

A few others are used with de or with h, according to the 
meaning which is given to them. 



Exercise. 
We would have prevented them from doing that, but we came too 
late, and when we tried to persuade them to desist, they replied, that 
it was no longer in their power to undo their work. Why do you not 
teach your children to speak French ? it is useful to know at least one 
other language besides our own, and it helps much in learning to 



250 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

understand the latter. She has been trying to imitate the voice of 
that celebrate! singer, ever since she heard her sing in London ; but 
in vain, for her voice is not strong enough to do what the other did 
without making an effort. Would it not l>e better for you and your 
children to lay up some money, so that, when you begin to grow old, 
you may feel secure against want"? I would advise you earnestly to 
follow his counsel, and to do what you want to do at once, fur delay 
is seldom useful in bringing better knowledge. His wife was a 
charming woman ; she was beloved and esteemed by all who knew her, 
whilst he was detested, and finally killed, by one whom he had instilled 
grievously, in a dueL You say yon are in want of money enough to 
go on with your enterprise : i will think of it whilst going to town, 
and when I return 1 will let you know what I have determined to do 
fin v. i. If yon can do without your new dresses, it would be better 
far yoo I want all the money you bave to pay the doctor's 

bill, and to provide for the winter. Sin- has survived all In r relations 

and even her grandchildren: i; entirely alone, bat 

she bears it very v/efl, and does not complain of her lot. If it suit* 
_vi»u. 1 wish yon would come aud dine with us to-morrow; we have 
VOU will enjoy, I am sure, and you will 
thank ns for bavins Invited yon to met I 



CHAPTEB VIII. 



IONS. 



Coninnctioi r name from the fact that they serve 
to join • 

t i,,. v ,l,, ;• til OQghtS, nor the 

thoughts thei important on that 

a. count. Their principal purp* manner in 

■ other, and thai, in 

je, to build up tli. ,; from i,s different 

Conjunctions, according to thi ir form, are stinpfe. when they 

: tea no other poi 



CONJUNCTIONS. 251 

et, ou, ni, mais, si, car, etc. Some of these arc 11 ore precisely 
used in French than in English. Thus in English for serves aa 
a preposition as well as a conjunction, while in French each 
has a separate form.' 

Ex. He has done it for your satisfaction and mine, U Vafait 
pour votre satisfaction et la mienne. 
He has done it, for you wished it, il Pa fait car vous le 
desiriez. 
The English then sometimes refers to time, meaning at that 
time, and sometimes to a conclusion, meaning therefore ; the 
French has again one form for the adverb and another for the 
conjunction. 

Ex. It was then that he lost his right arm, c'etait alors qu'il 
perdit le bras droit. 
It was then your sister whom you took for me ? Cetait 
done votre sceur que vous prites pour moi ? 
Compound conjunctions consist of several words taken from 
other parts of speech, and have only this in common — that, with 
very few exceptions, like par consequent, etc., they are invariably 
connected with que. Such are puisque, parceque, a moins que, 
pourvu que, etc. 

Conjunctions, according to their signification, differ as much 
as the manner of thinking may differ in the human mind, 
limited only by the permanent and fixed laws of Logic. 

It will be borne in mind, here, that in French a conjunction 
— at least que — is absolutely necessary, whenever two verbs are 
placed in connection with each other. This is not the case in 
English, where the two verbs, and consequently two distinct 
ideas, may be simply placed side by side, without a conjunction, 
and it is left to the mind to supply the nature of the connec- 
tion. 

Ex. I know you tell me the truth and nothing more,^ sais 
que vous me dites la verite et rien de plus. 



252 UN THE PABTS OF A SENTENCE. 

He said he would come to take leave, il dit qvfil vien- 

drait prendre conn*.. 
When she heard he had gone she burst into tears, quand 
elle apprlt qu'ilfut parti tile cclata en larmes. 
It has also been stated that certain conjunctions require the 
jo. lowing verb to be in the subjunctive mood, from the peculiar 
meaning which attaches to them. 

Ex. -1 mains que rous ne soyez bicn riche, unless you should 
be extremely rich. 
J' ii consent pourvu quil le/asse lui-mime, I agree to it 
provided he does it himself. 
The conjunctions < /, ok, ni and ntrit, arc frequently repeated 
before two parts of i which are represented as 

united i other. 

Ex. Ei U /•-'/•' ei h :" ' pentit t both rather and 

son have been i 
Soil be it from contempt 

or from i ored bim. 

( Mli.r COnjunctiOl a i, bol only in the 

form of ',■'■• which thos i an ei. 

Ex, /. /""/', when I saw 

' croyaieptu, as he 

maintained it and 1 did not believe it. 
SU - tn d e j e u<j suit pat, if he 

— ] am noi in. 
ei poinl a tile, it is to you I 
•peak, i ber. 

A Dumb* r ■ j also !"• need as conj 

• 

Ex. Ji •''" tans ct pie\ ■ . I ■* i.i 

warn bim. so that he may not fall into tli.it snare. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 253 

II cat parti sans que per Sonne Vait vu, he is gone without 

being seen by any one. 
II etait embarrasse avant qu'il n'eut commence, he was 
embarrassed before he had commenced. 
They may also be used with the infinitive, except jusque. 
Ex. On Va puni pour avoir parle trop franchcment, he has 
been punished for having spoken too freely. 
Pensez avant de parler et vous parlerez mieux, think before 
you speak, and you will speak better. 

The different tenses which are required after certain conjunc- 
tions, as the present and imperfect after si, if, have been 
mentioned in their appropriate places and need not be repeated 
here. 

Que frequently stands for parceque, because, after c'est and 
the. other tenses of etre with ce. 

Ex. Cest que vous m'avez trop taquine, it is because you have 
teased me too much. 
Pourquoi s'en va-t-il ? Cest qu'il va se coucher, why 
does he go away ? Because he is going to bed. 
Puisque is in rare cases, and lorsque more frequently, sepa- 
rated so that que follows meme or another adverb, which may 
be placed between. 

Ex. Lors meme que cela en serait ainsi, even if that should 

be so. 
Que, as a conjunction, produces numerous idiomatic expres- 
sions, of which the following are the most important. 

Que is placed before a noun, which is compared to another 
word at the beginning of the sentence, preceded by c'est, for the 
sake of greater emphasis. 

Ex. C'est un fieau terrible que la guerre, war is a terrible 
scourge. 
Ce sont des droles de personnes que vos amis, your friends 
are very queer people. 



254 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

The same construction is constantly used in questions. 
Ex. Qu'est-ce que ce billet? What note is this . ; 

Qu'est-ce que <?est que lea idem innees ? What are innate 

ideas ? 
Qu'est-ce que cela veut dire ? What does that mean ? 
In this case, Jest is frequently repeated. 
Ex. Qu'est-ce que Seat que cette etoile ? What is that star ? 

Q Sest-ce q>te e'est que cela t What is that ? 
Que is used for the relative after definitions of time. 
Ex. Le jour qu'il naquit, sa mire mourul, on the <lav on 
which he was born, his mother died. 
// y a di •/.,■ am que ;< m Cut vue, it is two years since 1 
saw her (during which I have Dot seen her). 
Q u;, after the imperative, stands instead of pour que or jusque. 
Ex. A} on ami, qut trie, come nearer, 

friend, so that 1 can speak t-> you. 

Wait until he comes. 
uadfl instead of puisque. 
J '- x - '■ point t What 

i* the matter with you that you do t ■< >t ea1 .' 

. in exclamations, i> need as a substitute for the veil, itr,\ 

I by 'i'ii. 

W li:it a splendid 

ity that lady i- ! 

What a fool that man is! 
•. ami MM que. 

in phrases like the fallen 

. this will not end utiles 

In- C< 

| u lui il m soil venu, she will be gono 
before he has i o 

11 "' ■ ■ !■■ cannot go out with- 

out catching 



INTERJECTIONS. 255 



CHAPTER IX. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections have their name from the fact that they arc 
thrown in, as it were, between other words for the purpose of 
giving expression, not to our thoughts, like other words, but to 
our feelings. They are naturally mere particles of words or 
appeals to higher beings, — indeclinable because they have no 
relation whatever to other words, and most liable, of all parts of 
speech, to be mutilated and corrupted by the effect of strong- 
feelings, under which alone they are used. 

Grief is expressed by ah ! aie ! ouf I ahif kef helasf 
Ex. Ah! que cela me fait mail Oh, how that hurts! 

Ouf,je n\j puis plus ! J'etouffe! Oh! I cannot stand 

it any longer. I am stifled ! 
Helas ! II est mart, et nous sommes orphelins ! Alas ! 
he is dead, and we are orphans. 

Joy is expressed by ah ! bon ! 

Ex. Ah ! que je suis heureux de vous revoir ! Ah! how happy 
I am to see you again ! 

Fear is expressed by all ! hi ! 

Ex. Hi ! Qu'ai-je fait ? Je Vai casse ! Alas ! what have 
I done ! I have broken it ! 

Disgust is expressed hjfi!fi done ! 

Ex. Fi done ! Vous ne devriez pas faire cela ! Fie ! You 
ought not to do that. 

Encouragement is expressed by ho ! pet ca ! allons ! 
Ex. Ho! AVattaque! Vous allez vaincre ! Up! Attack 
them ! You will be victorious ! 



256 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

Warning is expressed by kola/ keinf oh! 
Ex. Hola ! Prenez garde! Vous allez tomber ! Lookout! 
Take care ! You will fall ! 

Silencing is expressed by chut! st ! 

Ex. Chut! Ne parlez pas si haut ! Hush! Don't speak so 
loud! 

Among the compound interjections are those appeals to 
God, etc., which have been mentioned, like Grand Dieu ! 
Dieu de dieu! Sainte Vierge! and those words which, in 
certain combinations, are used as interjections, as ton', beau/ 
gently — alkmsferme .' be linn — doucement, not so fast, etc. 



r :l k B .> i> 



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